Generation of Hydrocarbons

Generation of Hydrocarbon (HC):

-Step1: Deposition and preservation of organic matter (OM)

-Step 2: Conversion of OM to Kerogen

-Step3: Conversion of Kerogen to Gas-Oil-Wet gas-Gas

- During transformation from OM to HC, many petrographic and geochemical

changes takes place in the Kerogen and/or source rock.

- Objective of this lecture:

- Understanding and study of these changes. This is very essential during

exploration and exploitation of HC.
-Step1: Deposition and preservation of organic matter (OM)
Total amount of carbon in the earths crust: 2.65 1020g
- Out of this 82% of this C is locked up as CO3-- in limestones and dolomites
- Rest 18% occurs as organic carbon in coal, oil and gas.
- Key reaction is the conversion of inorganic carbon into HC by phtosynthesis. In this
H2O and CO2 are converted by algae and plants into water and glucose:
6CO2 + 12H2O = C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2

This is possible if
deposition takes
place in anoxic
environment.
Because the only elements essential to the constitution of petroleum
are hydrogen and carbon, the transformation must be such that the
oxygen and nitrogen of the original OM are largely removed, and the
lipids (fats) and hydrogen-rich organic residue largely preserved.
- This outcome is impossible if the decomposition of the OM takes place in an
oxygenated environment.

- The OM must therefore be subjected to no prolonged exposure to the

atmosphere, to aerated surface or sub-surface waters carrying acids or
bases, to elemental sulfur, or to vulcanicity or other igneous activity.

- Even in a continuously aquatic environment it must not be long transported,

reworked, or oxidized.

- In many organically rich sediments, the bulk of the OM is terrestrial vegetal

matter transported by rivers, depleted in hydrogen before its delivery to the
site of final deposition.
 Oxic water : 8.0 to 2.0 ml/L H2O: Aerobic biofacies

Dysoxic water : 2-0.2 ml/L H2O: Dysaerobic biofacies

Suboxic water : 0.2-0.0 ml/L H2O: Quasi aerobic biofacies

Anoxic water: Lacks oxygen : Anaerobic biofacies

(still lower than
0.2-0.0 ml/L H2O)
- If the oxygen content of the water exceeds 1 mg/L aerobic decomposition
of OM is very efficient, especially at or immediately above or below, the
sediment/water interface.

- Though dominated by aerobic bacteria, the processes are enhanced by

the presence of benthonic, metazoan predators (worms, bivalves, etc.);
bioturbation is more or less intense under virtually all oxygenated waters,
regardless or depth or type of substrate.
- Under anaerobic conditions, with less than 0.1 mg l-1 of oxygen (about 1.5
percent of its normal concentration in sea water), decomposition of OM is
slower and less efficient than under aerobic conditions.

- Anaerobic bacteria may use nitrate or sulfates in solution until these salts
are exhausted, yielding nitrogen and H2S in addition to the CO2 and H2O
generated by any earlier aerobic decomposition.

- Waters in anaerobic environments, like those in oilfields reservoirs, are

characteristically lacking in the sulfate ion.

-As dead OM falls to the sea floors as organic rain, the constituents
necessary for hydrocarbon generation are preserved only if the water
column is essentially anoxic (lacking living organisms), the fall is fairly
rapid (that is, the particle size is not wholly microscopic), and bottom-
dwelling predators are lacking.

-Factors affecting anaerobic decomposition:

- (i) Grain size: Coarse sands permits diffusion of oxygen which destroys OM
- Fine shale: Does not permit diffusion of oxygen , preserves
OM
-(ii) Sedimentation rate:
(ii) Sedimentation rate
-Under slow or interrupted sedimentation complex organic
substances are readily broken down by scavengers into simple
salts and CO2.
-Whereas rapid deposition
buries that OM below the reach
of mud feeding scavengers.

-Under normal conditions there

undoubtedly is a positive
correlation between the bulk
sedimentation rate and the OC
content of the sediments.

-But the correlation is less clear

at very high sedimentation
rates, presumably because of
the dilution effect brought about
the those rates ; the correlation
is not clear at all in anoxic
waters, in which it may in fact
be a negative correlation.
Different types of anoxic depositional basins (present and ancient)

Freshwater lake (Thermally induced

stratification)

Barred ocean (Stratification due to

salinity contrast)

A continental shelf with upwelling

Oceanic anoxic event

 Early
Cretaceous

Late
Jurassic
-Step 2: Conversion of OM to
Kerogen:-

resulting
From OM to Kerogen

(Action of microbiota in oxidising and anoxic depositional environment)

Diagenesis(D)

Catagenesis(C)

Metagenesis(M)

Metamorphism(C)
-Step3: Conversion of Kerogen to Gas-Oil-Wet gas-
Gas:
In palynological extracts of immature sediments, these two principal types of
organic matter yield H:C ratio as below:
(i) < 0.8 predominantly humic;
(ii) 0.8 and 1.0 mixed humic and sapropelic;
(iii) > 1.0 predominantly sapropelic.

The Van Krevelen diagram

Type-I: A rare type of high-grade,

algal sediment, commonly lacustrine,
containing sapropelic OM. It includes
oil shales, coorongite and tasmanite
from Australia, boghead coals and
torbanites.

H:C ratio 1.6-1.8.

The Van Krevelen diagram Type-II:Type of intermediate derivation,
commonly marginal marine, with admixture of
continental and aquatic (especially planktonic)
Om. Algal tissue , pollen, and spores are
important contributors. This type includes the
principal source sediments for oil , and some
ancient oil shales of marine origin such as the
kukkersite of Estonia . H:C ratio about 1.4.

Type III Sediment containing primarily humic

OM, of terrestrial, woody origin, equivalent ot the
vitrinite of coals. The material was deposited at
the oxic sediment/water interface; it is gas
prone. H:C ratio 1.0 or less (that is, there are
more carbon atoms than hydrogen atoms).

Type IV OM may have come from any source,

but it has been oxidized, recycled, or altered
during some earlier thermal event. The inert
carbonaceous material is now deficient in
hydrogen (H:C ratio about 0.4 or less), has no
evolutionary path left for it, and yields negligible
or no hydrocarbons.
 There is thus a range of temperatures through
which the generation of oil can take place if
the source sediments suitable (Fig )

At temperatures below the critical jump

60C temperature of about 60oC , the sediments are
immature; at temperatures beyond some
higher critical temperature (typically about
120oC) they are post-mature,.
120C
The temperature range of oil generation was
called by Walter Pusey (in 1973) the liquid
window; it applies to the range of true
generation and expulsion of the oil, and
should not be extended to include oils that
have been subjected to extensive vertical
migration into much younger and cooler
rocks.
Empirical correlation between temperature and petroleum generation
Correltions between the techniques and their indicators
Migration of Hydrocarbons
Primary Migration
Physico -Chemical aspects

Pressure
Compaction
- Compaction in sediment results in an increase in bulk density and loss of
porosity with increasing effective pressure, temperature and time.

- The rate of compaction is largely governed by material properties of a

sediment(both physical and chemical) and by the rate at which liquid pore
fluid can be expelled.

- Because compaction causes fluid flow through sedimentary rocks, it is

commonly considered to be an important factor in petroleum migration.
For clastic sediments
- For clastic sediments p lots of porosity versus depth show a more or less
exponential relationship.
-Compaction may be delayed in thick
shale sequences with little or no sand
intercalations.

-ln such sequences the escape of

pore waters
cannot keep pace with subsidence
and abnormally high pressure may be
build up in the central zone of thick
shales .
-The expansion of water due to rising temperature is an additional cause for fluid migration in the
sub-surface.

-The direction of fluid movement would be from hot to cold areas, from deep to shallow and from
a basin centre to the edges.

-Thus temperature-induced fluid flow follows the same general directions as fluid Movement
caused by "normal-compaction.
ore Diameters and Internal Surface Areas
- During sedimentary compaction and
resulting
porosity reduction, there is also a
marked regular
decrease in pore diameter., especially i
fine grained sedimentary rocks such as
shales.

- With increasing depth of burial pore

spaces
- Become more or less flat.
- Hence the term pseudo pore diameter is
used in
place of actual diameter.
- Average pseudo pore diameter in shales
is around
50-100A at a depth range of 2000m and
continue
to decrease further with increasing depth
- Because pores are usually flat at depth, it can be assumed that
molecules such as asphaltenes with effective diameter of 50A cannot
move through pore system with pseudo pore diameter of 50A .
ossible Modes of Primary Migration
Secondary Migration
Case I: Vertical oil stringer:

Case II: Horizontal oil stringer:

Case III: Inclined oil stringer: