Chapter 2: Measurement

Errors
Gross Errors or Human Errors
Resulting from carelessness, e.g.
misreading, incorrectly recording

1
 Systematic Errors
Instrumental Errors
Friction
Zero positioning
Environment Errors
Temperature
Humidity
Pressure
Observational Error
Random Errors

2
 Absolute Errors and Relative
Errors

Absolute Error e X t X m
where X t : True Value
X m : Measured Value

Xt Xm
Relative Error %Error 100%
Xt 3
 Accuracy, Precision, Resolution,
and Significant Figures
Accuracy (A) and Precision
The measurement accuracy of 1%
defines how close the measurement
is to the actual measured quality.
The precision is not the same as the
accuracy of measurement, but they
are related.

Accuracy 1 %Error
x x
Precision 1 n n xn
x
xn n

4
a) If the measured quantity increases or
decreases by 1 mV, the reading becomes
8.936 V or 8.934 V respectively.
Therefore, the voltage is measured with
a precision of 1 mV.
b) The pointer position can be read to
within one-fourth of the smallest scale
division. Since the smallest scale
division represents 0.2 V, one-fourth of
the scale division is 50 mV.
Resolution
The measurement precision of an
instrument defines the smallest
change in measured quantity that
can be observed. This smallest
observable change is the
resolution of the instrument.
Significant Figures
The number of significant figures
indicate the precision of 5
measurement.
Example 2.1: An analog voltmeter is used to
measure voltage of 50V across a resistor.
The reading value is 49 V. Find
a) Absolute Error
b) Relative Error
c) Accuracy
d) Percent Accuracy
Solution
a) e X t X m 50V 49V 1V
Xt Xm
b) % Error 100%
Xt
50V 49V
100% 2%
50V
c) A 1 % Error 1 2% 0.98
d) % Acc 100% 2% 98%

6
Example 2.2: An experiment conducted to
measure 10 values of voltages and the
result is shown in the table below.
Calculate the accuracy of the 4th
experiment.

No. (V) No. (V)

1 98 6 103
2 102 7 98
3 101 8 106
4 97 9 107
5 100 10 99

Solution
xn
x x
1 x2 ... x10
n 10
98 102 101 97 100 103 98 106 107 99

10
101.1
x n xn 97 101.1
Precision 1 1 0.959 96% 7
xn 101.1
 Class of Instrument
Class of instrument is the number
that indicates relative error.
Absolute Error
Class
e(range) range
100

Relative Error
e range
%Error 100% , xt true value
Xt
e range
%Error 100% , xm measured value
Xm

8
Example 2.3 A class 1.0 Voltmeter with range
of 100V, 250V, and 1,000V is used to
measure voltage source with 90V.
Calculate range of voltage and its
relative errors
Solution
1
a) e 100V 100V 1V
100
100V 1V, 99V 101V
1V
%Error 100% 1.11%
90V
1
b) e 250V 250V 2.5V
100
250V 2.5V, 247.5V 252.5V
2.5V
%Error 100% 2.77%
90V
1
c) e 1,000V 1,000V 10V
100
1,000V 10V, 990V 1,010V
10V
%Error 100% 11.11%
90V
9
 Measurement Error
Combinations
When a quantity is calculated
from measurements made on two
(or more) instruments, it must be
assumed that the errors due to
instrument inaccuracy combine is
the worst possible way.
Sum of Quantities
Where a quantity is determined as
the sum of two measurements, the
total error is the sum of the absolute
errors in each measurement.
E V1 V1 V2 V2
giving E V1 V2 V1 V2

10
 Difference of Quantities
The error of the difference of two
measurements are again additive
E V1 V 1 V 2 V 2
V1 V 2 V 1 V 2

Product of Quantities
When a calculated quantity is the
product of two or more quantities,
the percentage error is the sum of
the percentage errors in each
quantity
P EI
E E I I
EI E I I E EI
since EI is very small ,
P EI E I I E

11
 EI IE
percentage error 100%
EI
I E
100%
I E

% error in P % error in I % error in E

Quotient of Quantities
E
% error in % error in E % error in I
I

Quantity Raised to a
% error in A B B % error in A
Power

10%

Example 2.4 An 820 resistance with an

accuracy of 2% a current of
carries
10 mA. The current was measured by
an analog ammeter on a 25mA range
with an accuracy of of full scale.12
Calculate the power dissipated in the
Solution
P I 2 R 10 mA 820
2

82 mW
error in R 10%
error in I 2% of 25 mA
0.5 mA
0.5 mA
100% 5%
10 mA

%error in I 2 2 5% 10%

%error in P %error in I 2 %error in R
10% 10% 20%

Basics in Statistical Analysis

Arithmetic Mean Value
x1 x2 x3 ... xn
x
n
Minimizing the effects of random
errors
13
14
 Deviation
Difference between any one
measured value and the arithmetic
mean of a series of measurements
May be positive or negative, and the
algebraic sum of the deviations is
always zero
dn xn x

The average deviation (D) may be

calculated as the average of the
absolute values of the deviations.
d 1 d 2 d 3 ... d n
D
n

15
 Standard Deviation and Probable
of Error
Variance: the mean-squared value of
the deviations
d 12 d 22 ... d n2

2

n
Standard deviation or root mean
squared (rms)
d 12 d 22 ... d n2
SD or
n

For the case of a large number of

measurements in which only
random errors are present, it can be
shown that the probable error in any
one measurement is 0.6745 times
the standard deviation:
Probable Error 0. 6745 16
Example 2.5 The accuracy of five digital
voltmeters are checked by using each of them
to measure a standard 1.0000V from a
calibration instrument. The voltmeter
readings are as follows: V1 = 1.001 V, V2 =
1.002, V3 = 0.999, V4 = 0.998, and V5 =
1.000. Calculate the average measured
voltage and the average deviation.
Solution
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
Vav
5
1.001 1.002 0.999 0.998 1.000
1.000V
5
d1 V1 Vav 1.001 1.000 0.001V
d 2 V2 Vav 1.002 1.000 0.002V
d 3 0.999 1.000 0.001V
d 4 0.998 1.000 0.002V
d 5 1.000 1.000 0V
d1 d 2 ... d 5
D
5
0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002 0
0.0012V 17
5