Soft Computing

Fuzzy logic is part of soft

computing
Congress of Computational Intelligence

Neural Nets Evolutionary Algorithms

Computational
Intelligence

Fuzzy
Logic
Fuzzy Logic and Functions
Constructive
Induction
Decision Trees
and other
Evolutionary
Algorithms Fuzzy logic Learning

Neural Nets
 The Definition of Fuzzy Logic
Membership Function
A person's height
membership function
graph is shown next
with linguistic values
of the degree of
membership as very
tall, tall, average,
short and very short
being replaced by
0.85, 0.65, 0.50, 0.45
and 0.15.
 In traditional logic, statements can be
either true or false, and sets can
either contain an element or not.
These logic values and set
memberships are typically
represented with number 1 and 0.
Fuzzy logic generalizes traditional
logic by allowing statements to be
somewhat true, partially true, etc.
Likewise, sets can have full members, tall
partial members, and so on.
For example, a person whose height is
5 9 might be assigned a medium
membership of 0.6 in the fuzzy set
tall people.
The statement Joe is tall is 60%
true of Joe is 59.
Fuzzy logic is a set of if--then
statements based on combining fuzzy
sets. (Beale & Demuth..Fuzzy Systems
Toolbox.)
 Fuzzy Sets, Statements, and
Rules
A crisp set is simply a collection of objects taken from the
universe of objects.
Fuzzy refers to linguistic uncertainty, like the word tall.
Fuzzy sets allow objects to have membership in more
than one set:
e.g. 6 0 has grade 70% in the set tall and grade 40% in the
set medium.
A fuzzy statement describes the grade of a fuzzy variable
with an expression:
e.g. Pick a real number greater than 3 and less than 8.
 The Definition of Fuzzy
Logic Rules
A fuzzy logic system uses fuzzy logic rules, as in an
expert system where there are many if-then rules.
A fuzzy logic rule uses membership functions as variables.
A fuzzy logic rule is defined as an if variable(s) and
then output fuzzy variable(s).
Fuzzy logic variables are connected together like
binary equations with the variables separated with
operators of AND, OR, and NOT.
 Contents
Review of classical logic and reasoning systems
Fuzzy sets
Fuzzy logic
Fuzzy logic systems applications
Fuzzy Logic Minimization and Synthesis
Practical Examples
Approaches to fuzzy logic decomposition
Our approach to decomposition
Combining methods and future research
 Outline
be introduced to the topics of:
fuzzy sets,
fuzzy operators,
fuzzy logic
and come to terms with the technology
learn how to represent concepts using fuzzy
logic
understand how fuzzy logic is used to make
deductions
familiarise yourself with the `fuzzy' terminology
Traditional Logic
One of the main aims of logic is to
provide rules which can be employed
to determine whether a particular
argument is correct or not.
The language of logic is based on
mathematics and the reasoning
process is precise and unambiguous.
 Logical arguments
Any logical argument consists
of statements.
A statement is a sentence
which unambiguously either
holds true or holds false.
Example:Today
Example: is Sunday
 Predicates
Example: Seven is an even number
This example can be written in a mathematical
form as follows:
7 {x| x is an even number}
or in a more concise way:
7 {x|P(x)}
where | is read as such that and P(x) stands
for `x has property P' and it is known as the
predicate.
Note that a predicate is not a statement until
some particular x-value is specified.
Once a x value is specified then the predicate
becomes a statement whose truth or falsity
can be worked out.
 For All Quantifier
For all x and y, x2-y2 is the same as
(x+y)*(x-y)
This example can be written in a
mathematical form as well:
x,y ((x,y R) (x2-y2)=(x+y)*(x-y))
where the is interpreted as 'for all',
is the logical operator AND, and R
represents what is termed as the
universe of discourse.
 Universe of Discourse
Using the universe of discourse one
assures that a statement is evaluated for
relevant values.
The above predicate is then true only for real
numbers.
Similarly for the first example the
universe of discourse is most likely to be
the set of natural numbers rather than
buildings, rivers, or anything else.
Hence, using the concept of the universe of
discourse any logical paradoxes can not
arise.
Existential Quantifier
Another type of quantifier is the
existential quantifier ().
The existential quantifier is
interpreted as 'there exists' or 'for
some' and describes a statement
as being true for at least one
element of the set.
For example, (x)
((river(x)name(Amazon))
Connectives and their truth tables
A number of connectives exist.
Their sole purpose is to allow us to join
together predicates or statements in order to
form more complicated ones.
Such connectives are NOT (~), AND (),
OR ().
Strictly speaking NOT is not a connective
since it only applies to a single predicate or
statement.
In traditional logic the main tools of
reasoning are tautologies, such as the
modus ponens (A(AB))B ( means
implies).
 Truth Tables
And Or Not
A B AB AB ~A
True True True True False
True False False True False
False True False True True
False False False False True

This everything will hold true, we will just

do a small modification to the material on
logic from the last quarter
 Identities of Fuzzy Logic
The form of identities used in fuzzy variables are the same as elements in
fuzzy sets.
The definition of an element in a fuzzy set, {(x,u a(x))}, is the same as a fuzzy
variable x and this form will be used in the remainder of the paper.
Fuzzy functions are made up of fuzzy variables.
The identities for fuzzy algebra are:

Idempotency: X + X = X, X * X = X
Commutativity: X + Y = Y + X, X * Y = Y * X
Associativity: (X + Y) + Z = X + (Y + Z),
(X * Y) * Z = X * (Y* Z)
Absorption: X + (X * Y) = X, X * (X + Y) = X
Distributivity: X + (Y * Z) = (X + Y) * (X + Z),
X * (Y + Z) = (X * Y) + (X * Z)
Complement: X = X
DeMorgan's Laws: (X + Y) = X * Y, (X * Y) = X + Y
Transformations of Fuzzy
Logic Formulas
Some transformations of fuzzy sets with examples follow:
xb + xb = (x + x)b b
xb + xxb = xb(1 + x) = xb
xb + xxb = xb(1 + x) = xb
a + xa = a(1 + x) = a
a + xa = a(1 + x) = a
a + xxa = a
a+0=a
x+0=x
x*0=0
x+1=1
x*1=x
Examples:
a + xa + xb + xxb = a(1 + x) + xb(1 + x) = a + xb
a + xa + xa + xxa = a(1 + x + x + xx) = a
 Differences Between Boolean
Logic and Fuzzy Logic
In Boolean logic the value
of a variable and its inverse are
always disjoint (X * X = 0)
and (X + X = 1) because the
values are either zero or one.
Fuzzy logic membership
functions can be either disjoint
or non-disjoint.
Example of a fuzzy non-
linear and linear membership
function X is shown (a) with
its inverse membership
function shown in (b).
 Fuzzy Intersection and Union
From the membership
functions shown in the top in
(a), and complement X (b) the
intersection of fuzzy variable
X and its complement X is
shown bottom in (a).

From the membership

functions shown in the top in
(a), and complement X (b) the
union of fuzzy variable X and
its complement X is shown
bottom in (b).

Fuzzy Fuzzy union

intersection
Validation of Fuzzy Functions
valid
inconsistent

Two fuzzy functions are valid iff the function outputs are 0.5 under all
possible assignments.
This is like doing EXOR of two binary functions shown in (b) which is the
same as union.
Two fuzzy functions are inconsistent iff the function output is 0.5 under
all possible assignments. Thus, if the output of the two fuzzy functions is <
0.5 then the two fuzzy functions are inconsistent.
This is like exnor of two binary functions of shown in (a) which is the same
as intersection.
 Fuzzy Logic
The concept of fuzzy logic was
introduced by L.A Zadeh in a 1965 paper.
Aristotelian concepts have been useful
and applicable for many years.
But these traditional approaches present
us with certain problems:
Cannot express ambiguity
Lack of quantifiers
Cannot handle exceptions
Traditional Logic Problems
Cannot express ambiguity:
Consider the predicate `X is tall'.
Providing a specific person we can turn the
predicate into a statement.
But what is the exact meaning of the word `tall'?
What is `tall' to some people is not tall to others.
Lack of quantifiers:
Another problem is the lack of being able to
express statements such as `Most of the goals
came in the first half '.
The `most' quantifier cannot be expressed in terms
of the universal and/or existential quantifiers.
Traditional Logic Problems
Cannot handle exceptions:
Another limitation of traditional predicate
logic is expressing things that are
sometimes, but not always true.
 Traditional sets
In order to represent a set we use curly brackets
{}.
Within the curly brackets we enclose the names
of the items, separating them from each other by
commas.
The items within the curly brackets are referred
to as the elements of the set.
Example: Set of vowels in the English alphabet =
{a,e,i,o,u}
When dealing with numerical elements we may
replace any number of elements using 3 dots.
Example: Set of numbers from 1 to 100 = {1,2,3,...,100}
Set of numbers from 23 to infinity = {23,24,25,...}
 Traditional sets
Rather than writing the description of
a set all the time we can give names to
the set.
The general convention is to give sets
names in capital letters.
Example:
V = set of vowels in the English alphabet.
Hence any time we encounter V implies the set {a, e, i, o,
u}.
For finite size sets a diagrammatic
representation can be employed which can
be used to assist in their understanding.
These are called the cloud diagrams
Cloud Diagrams
 Set order
The order in which the elements are
written down is not important.
Example: V = {a,e,i,o,u} = {u,o,i,e,a} =
{a,o,e,u,i}
The names of the elements in a set
must be unique.
Example:
V = {a,a,e,i,o,u}
If two elements are the same then there is no
point writing them down twice (waste of effort)
but if different then we must introduce a way to
tell them apart.
 Set membership
Given any set, we can test if a certain
thing is an element of the set or not.
The Greek symbol, , indicates an
element is a member of a set.
For example, xA means that x is an
element of the set A.
If an element is not a member of a
set, the symbol is used, as in A.
 Set equality & subsets
Two sets A and B are equal, (A= B) if
every element of A is an element of B and
every element of B is an element of A.

A set A is a subset of set B, (A B) if

every element of A is an element of B.

A set A is a proper subset of set B, (A

B) if A is a subset of B and the two sets
are not equal.
 Set equality & subsets
Two sets A and B are disjoint, (A b) if and
only if their intersection is the empty set.
There are a number of special sets. For
instance:
Boolean B={True, False}
Natural numbers N={0,1,2,3,...}
Integer numbers Z={...,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...}
Real numbers R
Characters Char
Empty set or {}
The empty set is not to be confused with {0}
which is a set which contains the number zero as
its only element.
 Set operations
We have a number of possible operators
acting on sets.
The intersection ( ), the union ( ), the
difference (/), the complement (').
Intersection results in a set with the common
elements of two sets.
Union results in a set which contains the
elements of both sets.
The difference results in a set which contains all
the elements of the first set which do not appear
in the second set.
The complement of a set is the set of all element
not in that set.
 Set operations example
Using as an example the two following sets A
and B the mathematical representation of the
operations will be given.
A = {cat, dog, ferret, monkey, stoat}
B = {dog, elephant, weasel, monkey}
C = A B = {x e u | (x e A) (x e B)}={dog,
monkey}
C = A B = {x e u | (x e A) (x e B)}={cat,
ferret, stoat, dog, elephant, weasel, monkey}
C = A / B = {x e u | (x e A) ~(x e B)}={cat,
ferret, stoat}
C = A = {x e u | ~(x e A)}
Set operations example using
Venn diagrams
Intersection Union

A B A B

Difference Complement

A B
A A'
 Soft
Computing and
Fuzzy Theory
What is fuzziness
The concept of fuzzy logic was introduced in a 1965
paper by Lotfi Zadeh.
Professor Zadeh was motivated by his realization of
the fact that people base their decisions on
imprecise, non-numerical information.
Fuzzification should not be regarded as a single
theory but as a methodology
It generalizes any specific theory from a discrete to a
continuous form.
For instance:
from Boolean logic to fuzzy logic,
from calculus to fuzzy calculus,
from differential equations to fuzzy differential
equations,
and so on.
What is fuzziness
Fuzzy logic is then a superset
of conventional Boolean logic.
In Boolean logic propositions
take a value of either
completely true or completely
false
Fuzzy logic handles the concept
of partial truth, i.e., values
between the two extremes.
 What is fuzziness
For example, if pressure takes values
between 0 and 50 (the universe of
discourse)
discourse one might label the range 20
to 30 as medium pressure (the subset).
Medium is known as a linguistic
variable.
Therefore, with Boolean logic 15.0 (or
even 19.99) is not a member of the
medium pressure range.
As soon as the pressure equals 20,
then it becomes a member.
Boolean Medium Pressure
The following Figure shows the membership funct
using Boolean logic.
 What is fuzziness
Contrast with the Figure of the next
page which shows the membership
function using fuzzy logic.
Here, a value of 15 is a member of the
medium pressure range with a
membership grade of about 0.3.
Measurements of 20, 25, 30, 40 have
grade of memberships of 0.5, 1.0, 0.8, and
0.0 respectively.
Therefore, a membership grade
progresses from non-membership to full
membership and again to non-
membership.
Fuzzy Medium Pressure
Fuzzy
Sets
 Fuzzy Sets
Fuzzy logic is based upon the notion of fuzzy
sets.
Recall from the previous section that an item is
an element of a set or not.
With traditional sets the boundaries are clear cut.
With fuzzy sets partial membership is allowed.
Fuzzy logic involves 3 primary processes :
Fuzzification
Rule evaluation
Defuzzification
With fuzzy logic the generalised modus ponens is
employed which allows A and B to be
characterised by fuzzy sets.
Fuzzy Set Theory
 Fuzzy Sets
Definition
Operations
Identities
Transformations
TRADITIONAL vs. FUZZY SETS
Traditional sets, influenced from the
Aristotelian view of two-valued logic,
have only two possible truth values,
namely TRUE or FALSE, 1 or 0, yes or no
etc.
Something either belongs to a
particular set or does not.
The characteristic function or
alternatively referred to as the
discrimination function is defined below
in terms of a functional mapping:
TRADITIONAL vs. FUZZY SETS
In fuzzy sets, something may
belong partially to a set.
Therefore it might be very true or
somewhat true, 0.2 or 0.9 in
numerical terms.
The membership function using
fuzzy sets defined in terms of a
functional mapping is as shown
below:
TRADITIONAL vs. FUZZY SETS
Fuzzy logic allows you to violate the laws
of noncontradiction since an element can
be a member of more than one set.
More set operations are available
The excluded middle is not applicable,
i.e., the intersection of a set with its
complement does not necessarily result
to an empty set.
Rule based systems using fuzzy logic in
some cases might increase the amount
of computation required in comparison
with systems using classical binary logic.
 TRADITIONAL vs. FUZZY SETS

If fuzzy membership grades are

restricted to {0,1} then Boolean sets
are recovered.
For instance, consider the Set Union
operator which states that the truth
value of two arguments x and y is
their maximum:
truth(x or y) = max(truth(x), truth(y)).
 TRADITIONAL vs. FUZZY SETS

If truth grades are either 0 or 1 then

following table is found:
x y truth
000
011
101
111
which is the same truth table as in the
Boolean logic.
So, every crisp set is fuzzy, but not
conversely.
Definition of Fuzzy Set
A fuzzy set, defined as A, is a subset of a universe of discourse U,
where A is characterized by a membership function uA(x).

The membership function uA(x) is associated with each point in

U and is the grade of membership in A.

The membership function uA(x) is assumed to range in the

interval [0,1], with value of 0 corresponding to the non-
membership, and 1 corresponding to the full membership.

The ordered pairs form the set {(u,uA(x))} to represent the

fuzzy set member and the grade of membership.
 Operations on Fuzzy Sets
The fuzzy set operations are defined as follows.
Intersection operation of two fuzzy sets uses the symbols: , *, , AND, or min.
Union operation of two fuzzy sets uses the symbols: , , +, OR, or max.

Equality of two sets is defined as A = B u a(x) = u b(x) for all x X.

Containment of two sets is defined as A subset B,

A B u a(x) u b(x) for all x X.

Complement of a set A is defined as A, where u a(x) = 1 u a(x) for all x X.

Intersection of two sets is defined as A B

where u a b (x) = min{(u a(x),u b(x))} for all x X.
Where C A, C B then C A B.

Union of two sets is defined as A B where u a b(x) = max{(u a(x), u b (x))}

for all x X where D A, D B then D A B.
Fuzzy sets, logic, inference, control

This is the appropriate place to clarify not

what the terms mean but their relationship.
This is necessary because different authors
and researchers use the same term either
for the same thing or for different things.
The following have become widely
accepted:
Fuzzy logic system
anything that uses fuzzy set theory
Fuzzy control
any control system that employs fuzzy logic
Fuzzy associative memory
any system that evaluates a set of fuzzy if-then rules uses
fuzzy inference. Also known as fuzzy rule base or fuzzy
expert system
Fuzzy inference control
a system that uses fuzzy control and fuzzy inference
 Fuzzy sets
A traditional set can be considered as a
special case of fuzzy sets.
A fuzzy set has 3 principal properties:

the range of values over which the set is mapped

the degree of membership axis that measures a

domain value's membership in the set

the surface of the fuzzy set - the points that

connect the degree of membership with the
underlying domain
 Fuzzy sets
Therefore, a fuzzy set in a universe of discourse U
is characterised by the membership function x,
which takes values in the interval [0,1] namely
x:U[0,1].
A fuzzy set X in U may be represented as a set of ordered
pairs of a generic element u and its grade of membership
x as
X={u,X(u)/u _ U},
i.e., the fuzzy variables u take on fuzzy values x(u).
When a fuzzy set, say X, is discrete and finite it may
expressed as
X=x(u1)/u1+...+x(un)/un
where `+' is not the summation symbol but the union
operator, the `/ does not denote division but a particular
membership function to a value on the universe of discourse.
Fuzzy set
1.5
Grade
1
0.5
0

Decade
 Fuzzy sets
As an example consider:
the universe of discourse
U={0,1,2,...,9}
and a fuzzy set X1, `young generation
decade'.
A possible presentation now follows:
X1={1.0/0+1.0/1+0.85/2+0.7/3+0.5/4+0.
3/5+0.15/6+0.0/7+0.0/8+0.0/9.
a1 graphical
The set is also shown in 1.5
Grade
0.5
form below. 0

Decade
 Fuzzy set
Another set, X2 might be `mid-age
generation decade. In discrete form
this can be depicted as
X2={0.0/0+0.0/1+0.5/2+0.8/3+1.0/4+
1

0.7/5+0.3/6+0.0/7+0.0/8+0.0/9.
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Grade 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Decade
 Support of a fuzzy set:
Support, Crossover,
The support of a fuzzy set
is the set of all elements of Singleton
the universe of discourse
that their grade of
membership is greater
than zero.
For X2 the support is
{2,3,4,5,6}.
1
Additionally, a fuzzy set 0.9
0.8
has compact support if its 0.7
support is finite. 0.6
Grade 0.5
Crossover point: 0.4
0.3

The element of a fuzzy set 0.2

0.1
that has a grade of 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
membership equal to 0.5 is Decade
known as the crossover
point.
For X2 the crossover point
is 2.
 Fuzzy singleton:
The fuzzy set whose support
Support, Crossover,
is a single point in the Singleton
universe of discourse with
grade of membership equal
to one is known as the fuzzy
singleton.
-Level sets:
The fuzzy set that contains 1
the elements which have a 0.9
0.8
grade of membership 0.7
0.6
greater than the -level set Grade 0.5
0.4
is known as the -Level set. 0.3
0.2
For X2 the -Level set when 0.1
0

=0.6 is {3,4,5}. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Decade
Whereas for X2 the -Level
set when =0.4 is {2,3,4,5}.
 Popular
Membership
Functions
 Popular Membership Functions
Membership Functions are used in order to
return the degree of membership of a
numerical value for a particular set.
Fuzzy membership functions can have different
shapes, depending on someone's experience or
even preference.
Here we review some of the membership
functions used in order to capture the
modeler's sense of fuzzy numbers.
Membership functions can be drawn using:
Subjective evaluation and elicitation
(Experts specify at the end of an elicitation phase the
appropriate membership functions) or
Ad-hoc forms
(One can draw from a set of given different curves.
Popular Membership Functions
This simplifies the problem, for example to
1. choosing just the central value and the slope
on either side)
2. Converted frequencies (Information from a
frequency histogram can be used as the basis
to construct a membership function
3. Learning and adaptation.
For example, let us consider the fuzzy
membership function of the linguistic
variable Tall.
The following function can be one
presentation:
 Popular Membership Functions
0 if height(x) < 5 feet
height(x) - 5
Tall(x) = if 5 feet height(x) 7 feet
2
1 if height(x) > 7 feet

Given the above definition the membership grade

for an expression like `Dimitris is Tall' can be
evaluated. Assuming a height of 6' 11'' the
membership grade is 0.54
Other popular shapes used are triangles and
The S-Function
0 for x
2
x
2 for x


S ( x; , , )
2
1 2 x
for x

1 for x
 S-
The S-Function
function
1

0 .9

0 .8

0 .7

0 .6

0 .5

0 .4

0 .3

0 .2

0 .1

0 x
a b g
 The S-Function
As one can see the S-function is flat at a
value of 0 for xa and at 1 for xg. In between
a and g the S-function is a quadratic function
of x.
To illustrate the S-function we shall use the fuzzy
proposition Dimitris is tall.
We assume that:
Dimitris is an adult
The universe of discource are normal people
(i.e., excluding the extremes of basketball players etc.)
then we may assume that anyone less than 5 feet
is not tall (i.e., a=5) and anyone more than 7 feet
is tall (i.e., g=7).
Hence, b=6.
Anyone between 5 and 7 feet has a membership function
which increases monotonically with his height.
 S-Function
0 for x 5
2
x 5
2 for5 x 6
S ( x;5,6,7)
x 7
2
1 2 for6 x 7

1 for x7
 Hence the membership of 6 feet tall people is 0.5,
whereas for 6.5 feet tall people increases to 0.9.
S-
function
1
0 .9

0 .8

0 .7

0 .6

0 .5

0 .4

0 .3

0 .2

0 .1

5 6 7 Heigh
t
 P-Function

S ( x; , , ) for x
( x; , ) 2

1 S ( x; , , ) for x
2
 P-Function
P-function
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5 b
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 x
g-b g-(b/2) g g+(b/2) g+b
 P-Function
The P-function goes to zero at < ,
and the 0.5 point is at = (/2).
Notice that the parameter
represents the bandwidth of the 0.5
points.
 P-Function
P-function
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5 6
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 x
1 4 7 10 13

S ( x;1,4,7) for x 7
( x;6,7)
1 S ( x;7,10,13) for x 7
Many argument
Fuzzy
Operations
 Operations
An example of fuzzy operations: X = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and
fuzzy sets A and B.
A = {(3,0.8), (5,1), (2,0.6)} and
B = {(3,0.7), (4,1), (2,0.5)} then
A B = {(3, 0.7), (2, 0.5)}
A B = {(3, 0.8), (4, 1), (5, 1), (2, 0.6)}
A = {(1, 1), (2, 0.4), (3, 0.2), (4, 1), (5,0)}
Fuzzy operators
What follows is a summary of some fuzzy set
operators in a domain X.
For illustration purposes we shall use the
following membership sets:
A= 0.8/2 + 0.6/3 + 0.2/4, and B = 0.8/3 + 0.2/5
as well as X1 and X2 from above.
Set equality:
A=B if A(x)= B(x) for all xX
Set complement:
A' A' (x)=1- A (x) for all xX.
This corresponds to the logic `NOT' function.
A' (x) = 0.2/2 + 0.4/3 + 0.8/4
 Fuzzy operators
Subset: AB if and only if A(x) B(x) for all xX

Proper Subset:
AB if A(x) B(x) and A(x) B(x) for at least one
xX

Set Union:
AB AB(x)=( A(x), B(x)) for all xX where is the
join operator and means the maximum of the
arguments.
This corresponds to the logic `OR' function.
AB(x) = 0.8/2 + 0.8/3 + 0.2/4 + 0.2/5
Fuzzy Union Diagram
X1
1.2
1 X2
0.8 Union
Grade 0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Decade

AB(x) = 0.8/2 + 0.8/3 + 0.2/4 + 0.2/5

 Fuzzy operators
Set Intersection:
AB AB(x)=( A(x), B(x)) for all xX
where is the meet operator and means
the minimum of the arguments.
This corresponds to the logic `AND' function.
A B(x) = 0.6/3
Set product:
AB AB(x)= A(x) B(x)

Power of a set:
AN AN (x)=( A(x))N
Fuzzy Intersection diagram

X1
1.2
1 X2
0.8 Inter.
Grade 0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Decade
 Fuzzy operators
Bounded sum or bold union: AB
AB(x)=(1,( A(x)+ B(x))) where is minimum
and + is the arithmetic add operator.
Bounded product or bold intersection: AB
AB(x)=(0,( A(x)+ B(x)-1)) where is
maximum and + is the arithmetic add operator.
Bounded difference: A - B
A- B(x)=(0,( A(x)- B(x)))
where is maximum and - is the arithmetic minus
operator.
This operation represents those elements that
are more in A than B.
Single argument
Fuzzy
Operations
 Concentration set operator
CON(A) CON(A)=( A(x))2
This operation reduces the membership
grade of elements that have small
membership grades.
If
TALL=-.125/5+0.5/6+0.875/6.5+1/7+1/7.5
+1/8 then
VERY TALL =
0.0165/5+0.25/6+0.76/6.5+1/7+1/7.5
+1/8 since VERY TALL=TALL2.
Concentration set operator
1
0.9
0.8 Original
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Concentration
0.2
0.1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Dilation set operator
DIL(A) DIL(A)=( A(x))0.5
This operation increases the membership
grade of elements that have small
membership grades.
It is the inverse of the concentration
operation.
If
TALL=-.125/5+0.5/6+0.875/6.5+1/7+1/
7.5+1/8 then
MORE or LESS TALL =
0.354/5+0.707/6+0.935/6.5+1/7+1/7.5
+1/8 since MORE or LESS TALL=TALL0.5.
Dilation set operator
1
0.9
0.8
Dilation
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
Original
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
 Intensification set operator
This operation raises the membership grade of
those elements within the 0.5 points and
This operation reduces the membership grade of
those elements outside the crossover (0.5)
point.
Hence, intensification amplifies the signal
within the bandwidth while reducing the `noise'.
If TALL = -.125/5+0.5/6+0.875/6.5+1/7+1/7.5+1/8 then
INT(TALL) = 0.031/5+0.5/6+0.969/6.5+1/7+1/7.5+1/8.

2
2( A ( x)) for 0 A ( x) 0.5
INT ( A) ( x) 2
1 2 (1 A ( x )) for 0.5 A ( x) 1
Intensification set operator
1
0.9 intensification
Intensificatio
n
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5 Original
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
 Normalization set operator
NORM(A)(x)= A(x)/max{ A(x)} where
the max function returns the
maximum membership grade for all
elements of x.
If the maximum grade is <1, then all
membership grades will be increased.
If the maximum is 1, then the
membership grades remain unchanged.
NORM(TALL) = TALL since the
maximum is 1
 Hedges
language related
operators
 The above diagram shows the relationship between
linguistic variables, term sets and fuzzy
representations.
Cold, cool, warm and hot are the linguistic values of the
linguistic variable temperature.
In general a value of a linguistic variable is a composite term u
= u1, u2,...,un where each un is an atomic term.

linguistic Temperature
Hedges
variable

Cold Cool Warm Hot

term set

fuzzy set
representation
 Hedges
From one atomic term by
employing hedges we can create
more terms.
Hedges such as very, most, rather,
slightly, more or less etc.
Therefore, the purpose of the hedge
is to create a larger set of values for
a linguistic variable from a small
collection of primary atomic terms.
 Hedges
This is achieved using the processes of:
normalisation,
intensifier,
concentration, and
dilation.
For example, using concentration very u
is defined by :
very u = u2 and
very very u = u4.
 Hedges
Let us assume the following definition for
linguistic variable slow (first is membership
function, second speed):
u= 1.0/0 + 0.7/20 + 0.3/40 + 0.0/60 + 0.0/80
+ 0.0/100.
Then,
Very slow = u2 = 1.0/0 + 0.49/20 + 0.09/40
+ 0.0/60 + 0.0/80 + 0.0/100
Very Very slow = u4 = 1.0/0 + 0.24/0 +
0.008/40 + 0.0/60 + 0.0/80 + 0.0/100
More or less slow = u0.5 = 1.0/0 + 0.837/20
+ 0.548/40 + 0.0/60 + 0.0/80 + 0.0/100
membership
1
Hedges
0.9

0.8
more or less
0.7

0.6 slow
0.5

0.4

0.3 very slow

0.2 Speed

0.1

0 very very
0 slow20 40 60 80 100
 Hedge rather
The hedge rather is a linguistic modifier that moves
each membership by an appropriate amount C.
Setting C to unity we get.
Rather slow = 0.7/0 + 0.3/20 + 0.0/40 + 0.0/60 + 0.0/80
The slow but not very slow is a modification which is
using the connective but, which in turn is an
intersection operator.
The membership function in its discrete form was found
as follows:
slow = 1.0/0 + 0.7/20 + 0.3/40 + 0.0/60 + 0.0/80 + 0.0/100
very slow = 1.0/0 + 0.49/20 + 0.09/40 + 0.0/60 + 0.0/80 +
0.0/100
not very slow = 0.0/0 + 0.51/20 + 0.91/40 + 1.0/60 + 1.0/80
+ 1.0/100
slow but not very slow = min(slow, not very slow)
slow = 0.0/0 +
0.51/20 + 0.3/40 + 0.0/60 + 0.0/80 + 0.0/100
Hedges slow but not very slow and rather
slow
1

0.9

0.8

0.7
slow

0.6
slow but not very slow
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1 rather slow

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
 Hedge slightly
The slightly hedge is the fuzzy set operator
for intersection acting on the fuzzy sets Plus
slow and Not (Very slow).
Slightly slow = INT(NORM(PLUS slow and
NOT VERY slow) where Plus slow is slow to
the power of 1.25,
1.25 and is the intersection
operator.
slow = 1.0/0 + 0.7/20 + 0.3/40 + 0.0/60 + 0.0/80 +
0.0/100
plus slow = 1.0/0 + 0.64/20 + 0.222/40 + 0.0/60 +
0.0/80 + 0.0/100
not very slow = 0.0/0 + 0.51/20 + 0.91/40 + 1.0/60 +
1.0/80 + 1.0/100
plus slow and not very slow = min(plus slow, not
very slow) = 0.0/0 + 0.51/20 + 0.222/40 + 0.0/60 +
0.0/80 + 0.0/100
 Hedges
norm (plus slow and not very slow) =
(plus slow and not very slow/max) =
0.0/0 + 1.0/20 + 0.435/40 + 0.0/60 +
0.0/80 + 0.0/100
slightly slow = int (norm) = 0.0/0 +
1.0/20 + 0.87/40 + 0.0/60 + 0.0/80
+0.0/100.
 Hedges
1
0.9
0.8 not very
slow
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
slightly slow
0.3
0.2
plus slow
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
 Hedges
Now we are in a better position to
understand the meaning of the syntactic
and semantic rule.
A syntactic rule defines, in a recursive fashion,
more term sets by using a hedge.
For instance T(slow)={slow, very slow, very very
slow,...}.
The semantic rule defines the meaning of terms
such as very slow which can be defined as very
slow = (slow)2.
One is obviously allowed either to generate new
hedges or to modify the meaning of existing ones
Linguistic
variables
 Linguistic variables
Looking at the production rules of either a expert
system or a fuzzy expert system one can not see
any differences
except that the fuzzy system is employing linguistic
descriptors rather than absolute numerical values.
However, both parts of fuzzy rules have associated `levels
of belief' something lacking in traditional production rules.
Secondly, with traditional production rules even
when more than one rule applies only one
executes.
With fuzzy rules all applicable rules contribute in
calculating the resulting output.
All in all, fuzzy expert systems require fewer production
rules since fuzzy rules embody more information.
 Linguistic variables
A major reason behind using fuzzy
logic is the use of linguistic
expressions.
expressions
A linguistic variable consists of:
the name of the variable (u),
the term set of the variable (T(u)),
its universe of discourse (U) in which the
fuzzy sets are defined,
a syntactic rule for generating the names
of values of u, and
a semantic rule for associating with each
value its meaning.
 Linguistic variables
For example:
if u is temperature,
then its term set T(temperature)
could be:
T(temperature)={cold, cool,
cool warm, hot}
over a universe of discourse U=[0,300].
Linguistic variables
linguistic Temperature
variable

Cold Cool Warm Hot

term set

fuzzy set
representation
Fuzzy Set Definitions

We can have either continuous or

discrete definition of a fuzzy set
 Linguistic Variable
. Terms, Degree of Membership, Membership
Function, Base Variable..
Recap AI and Expert
Systems.
Fuzzy logic in this
framework
 Overview of AI
The realization by the Artificial
Intelligence community during the
1960's of the weakness of general
purpose problem solvers led to the
development of expert systems.
Expert systems held the greatest
promise for capturing intelligence and
have received more attention than any
other sub-discipline of Artificial
Intelligence.
The term knowledge-based systems is used
interchangeably to avoid the mis-
understandings and mis-interpretations of
the word 'expert'.
 Expert Systems
Irrespective of the adjective, each such system is
designed to operate in one of a variety of narrow areas.
The design involves attempts to model and codify the
knowledge of human experts.
One might wonder what makes expert systems different
from conventional ones. One might remark that in some
sense, any computer program is expert at something.
A payroll program incorporates knowledge about accountancy,
but it is not included in the expert class.
The differences originate from the type of programming language
employed.
Additionally, expert systems can reason using incomplete data and
can generate explanations and justifications, even during execution
of their actions.
Components of ES
Knowledge-base module:
this is the essential component of any
system.
It contains a representation in a variety
of forms of knowledge elicited from a
human expert
Inference engine module:
the inference engine utilizes the contents
of the knowledge base in conjunction
with the data given by the user in order
to achieve a conclusion.
Components of ES
Working memory module:
this is where the user's responses and the
system's conclusions for each session are
temporarily stored.
Explanation module:
this is an important aspect of an expert system.
Answers from a computer are rarely accepted
unquestioningly.
This is particularly true for responses from an
expert system.
Any system must be able to explain how it
reached its conclusions and why it has not
reached a particular result.
 Components of ES
Justification module:
using this module the system provides the
user with justification(s) of why some piece
of information is required.
User interface module:
the user of an expert system asks questions,
enters data, examines the reasoning etc.
The input-output interface, using menus or
restricted language, enables the user to
communicate with the system in a simple
and uncomplicated way.
 Methods of inference
Much of the power of an expert system comes from
the knowledge embedded in it.
In addition, the way the system infers conclusions is
of equal importance.
Most expert systems apply forward and/or backward
chaining.
chaining
The mode of chaining describes the way in which the
production rules are activated.
With forward chaining the user of the expert system asks
what conclusions can be made when this data is true.
The expert system might or might not ask for further
data.
With backward chaining the user of the expert system
asks what conclusions can be made.
The expert system will ask the user for data .
 Methods of inference
To illustrate the two modes consider the
following situation.
As you are driving you notice that behind you
is a police car with its lights and siren on.
So the data is `light is on' and `siren is on'.
The expert system will come to a conclusion such
as `stop the car' and `someone else to stop the
car'.
Obviously, the system can not make a hard
decision and asks for more data.
You suddenly realise that the policeman in the
car is waving at you.
This third piece of data `policeman is waving at
me' suggests to the system that they want you
to stop the car rather than someone else.
Methods of inference
The previous scenario describes the forward
chaining of your expert system which in this case
happens to be your brain.
Now, the system starts applying backward
chaining.
There are numerous conclusions of why the police want
you to stop.
For instance, 50 miles in a 30-mile zone, not-working
brake light, stolen plate number, turning to a one-way
street etc.
Therefore, your system starts collecting data to support
any of the hypothesised reasons.
Since you just passed your MOT, know that this is your
car, it is not a one-way street the system deduces that
you were overspeeding.
 Control Strategies
This refers to how the expert system
comes to a conclusion, i.e., the mode of
reasoning describes the way in which
the system as a whole is organised.
For instance, the order of looking at the
rules;
how to use meta-rules in order to check for
outstanding queries, of a completed goal
and the initiation of the evaluation of rules.
The order of looking at the rules usually is
in lexical order viz. when scanning rules it
will first look at rule 1, and then rule 2 etc.
When it searches, it inspects each rule to see if
the left hand conditions are true.
 Control Strategies
This is achieved by either reading the
working memory or by asking
questions or by generating further
subgoals.
subgoals
In most cases the system continues to
the next rule until all rules have
inspected.
All rules that can execute are placed in a
conflict set and one of the rules is selected.
The selected rule then executes. This is
what is known as the match, select and
execute cycle.
 Fuzzy Logic
Principles and
Learning
 Fuzzy Logic Principles
Fuzzy control produces actions using a set
of fuzzy rules based on fuzzy logic
This involves:
fuzzifying: mapping sensor readings into a set of
fuzzy inputs
fuzzy rule base: a set of IF-THEN rules
fuzzy inference: maps fuzzy sets onto other
fuzzy sets using membership fncts.
defuzzifying: mapping a set of fuzzy outputs
onto a set of crisp output commands
 Fuzzy Control
Fuzzy logic allows for specifying
behaviors as fuzzy rules
Such behaviors can be smoothly blended
together (e.g., Flakey robot)
Fuzzy rules can be learned
Industrial Application of
Fuzzy Logic Control
History, State of the Art, and Future
Development
Uncertainty
Types of Uncertainty and the Modeling
of Uncertainty
Stochastic Uncertainty:
The Probability of Hitting the Target is 0.8

Lexical Uncertainty:
 Methods of inference under
uncertainty
This is very important to consider when
using expert systems since sometimes
data is uncertain (i.e., ambiguous,
incomplete, noisy etc.).
A number of theories have been devised
to deal with uncertainty.
These include classical probability, Bayesian
probability, Shannon theory, Dempster-Shafer
theory among others.
A popular method of dealing with uncertainty
uses certainty factors
 Methods of inference under
uncertainty
The certainty factor indicates the net
belief in the conclusion and premises of a
rule based on some evidence.
Certainty factors are hand-crafted by
asking potential users questions such as
`How much do you believe that opening
valve x will start a flooding' and `How
much do you disbelieve that opening valve
x will start a flooding'.
The degree of certainty is the difference
between the two responses.
 Production Rules
Assuming that the knowledge-base
module contains knowledge
represented in the the format of
production rules the following
sections introduce the following:
the concept of a production rule
the concept of linguistic variables
the fuzzy inference concept
the concept of fuzzification and how to
accomplish the crisp to fuzzy transformation
the concept of defuzzification and how to
accomplish the fuzzy to crisp transformation
 Knowledge presentation using
production rules
From a philosophical point the concept of knowledge is
highly ambiguous and debatable
knowledge-base builders treat knowledge from a narrower
point of view.
This way the knowledge is easier to model and
understand.
It remains diverse including:
rules,
facts,
truths,
reasons,
defaults and
heuristics.
The knowledge engineer needs some technique for
capturing what is known about the application.
Knowledge presentation using
production rules
The technique should provide expressive
adequacy and notational efficacy.
Knowledge representation is very much
under constant research.
Several schemes have been suggested in
the literature, namely:
semantic nets,
frames and
logic.
Production rules have also been suggested
and are the most popular way of
representing knowledge.
 Knowledge presentation using
production rules
Production rules are small chunks of knowledge
expressed in the form of if..then statements.
The left hand side (IF) represents the antecedent or
conditional part.
The right hand side (THEN) represents the conclusion
or action part.
A number of rules collectively define a modularized
know-how system.
The principal use of production rules is in the
encoding of empirical associations between incoming
patterns of data and actions that the system should
perform as a consequence.
consequence
The production rules are either expressed by an
expert of the field, or derived using induction.
Fuzzy Logic Control
Fuzzy controller design consist of turning
intuitions, and any other information about how
to control a system, into set of rules.
These rules can then be applied to the system.
If the rules adequately control the system, the
design work is done.
If the rules are inadequate, the way they fail
provides information to change the rules.
Control a Plant
A valve in an
internal
combustion
engine that
regulates the
amount of
vaporized
fuel entering
the cylindres
 Using Fuzzy Logic for
Autonomous Vehicle Motion
Planning
Findings of Stanford Research
Institute (SRI)
Based on the performance of the robot
Flakey circa 1993
Discussion of autonomous navigation
and path planning in an uncertain
environment
Paper: Using Fuzzy Logic for
Autonomous Vehicle Motion
Planning
Difficulties of this problem
Flakey

Autonomous operation of a mobile robot in a real-

world unstructured environment poses a series of
problems:
knowledge about the environment is usually:
incomplete
uncertain, and
approximate
Perceptually acquired information is not reliable:
noise introduces uncertainty and imprecision
limited range and visibility introduces incompleteness
errors in interpretation
More Difficulties with this
Problem Flakey

Real world environments have complex and largely

unpredictable dynamics
objects can move
the environment may be modified
features may change
Vehicle action execution is not reliable:
the results produced by sending a given command to an
effector can only be approximately estimated
action execution may fail entirely
Robot Architecture using Fuzzy
Controller Flakey
Map
of the
LPS rooms

Key is Local
Perceptual
Space:

LPS is data structure

providing
geometric
picture around
vehicle Camera,etc
 The Fuzzy Controller Flakey

Physical motion based on complex fuzzy

controller
Provides a layer of robust high-level motor skills.
Basic building block of controller is a
behavior:
A behavior is defined as implementing an atomic motor
skill aimed at achieving or maintaining a give goal
situation
e.g. follow a wall.
Implementing Behaviors Flakey

Each behavioral skill is represented by means

of a desirability function that expresses
preferences over possible actions with
reference to the goal:
e.g. a behavior aimed at following a given wall
prefers actions that keep the agent parallel to the
wall at a safe distance
Behavior through Fuzzy Rules
Flakey
Each behavior was implemented by a set of fuzzy rules of
the form
IF A THEN C
A is composed of fuzzy predicates and connectives, and
C is a fuzzy set of control vectors
An example of a keep off behavior rule is:
IF obstacle-close-in-front AND NOT obstacle-close-
on-left THEN turn-sharp-left

Last slide used

 Fast Reactive Flakey

Behaviors
Purely reactive behaviors, intended to provide quick
simple reactions to potential dangers typically use
sensor data that has undergone little or no
interpretation.
Since quick response is necessary to avoid disaster,
little processing can be done.
 Control Structures Flakey

Purposeful behavior like attempting to reach a certain

location must take explicit goals into consideration.
Goals represented in the LPS by means of control
structures.
Control structure is a triple
S = (A,B,C)
A is a virtual object (artifact) in the LPS
B is a behavior that specifies the way to react to the presence of this object,
and
C is a fuzzy predicate expressing the context where the control structure is
relevant
Control Structure Example
S = (A,B,C) Flakey
A is a virtual object (artifact) in the LPS
B is a behavior that specifies the way to react to the presence of this object, and
C is a fuzzy predicate expressing the context where the control structure is relevant

An example control structure is

S1=(CP1, go-to-CP, near(CP1)
CP1 is a control-point (marker for a location), together with a heading and a
velocity
go-to-CP reacts to the presence of S1 in the LPS by generating the
commands to reach the location, heading and velocity specified by CP1.
go-to-CP includes rules like:
IF facing(CP1) AND too-slow-for(CP1) THEN
accelerate-smooth-positive
Blending of Behaviors Flakey

Many behaviors can be simultaneously active

Fuzzy controller selects the controls that best
satisfy the active behaviors
Satisfaction is weighted by each behaviors
relevance to the current situation.
e.g. cant follow a wall if there isnt one
Context dependent blending of behaviors is
implemented by combining the output of all the
behaviors using context rules
 Generating a plan:
S = (A,B,C)
A is a virtual object (artifact) in the LPS
B is a behavior that specifies the way to react to the presence of this object, and
C is a fuzzy predicate expressing the context where the control structure is relevant
Flakey
simple goal-regressing planner used:
based on a topological map annotated with approximate measurements (no
obstacles) working backwards from goal.
An example plan might be:
S1 = (Obstacle, keep-off, near(Obstacle))
S2 = (Corr1, follow,~near(obstacle) AND at(Corr2) AND
~near(Corr2))
S3 = (Corr2, follow,~near(obstacle) AND at(Corr2) AND
~near(Door5))
S4 = (Door5, cross,~near(Obstacle) AND near(Door5))
Control structure
 Executing the Plan Flakey

S1 = (Obstacle, keep-off, near(Obstacle))

S2 = (Corr1, follow,~near(obstacle) AND at(Corr2) AND
~near(Corr2))
S3 = (Corr2, follow,~near(obstacle) AND at(Corr2) AND
~near(Door5))
S4 = (Door5, cross,~near(Obstacle) AND near(Door5))
 More FUZZY LOGIC
SYSTEMS
APPLICATIONS
1. Discuss a Fuzzy Logic Control System
2. Steps in Designing a Fuzzy Logic Control System
3. Design of a Fuzzy Logic Control System:
Input membership function,
Fuzzy logic rules table,
Output membership function.
Components of Fuzzy system:
The components of a conventional
expert system and a fuzzy system
are the same.
Fuzzy systems though contain
`fuzzifiers.
Fuzzifiers convert crisp numbers into
fuzzy numbers,
Fuzzy systems contain `defuzzifiers',
Defuzzifiers convert fuzzy numbers into
crisp numbers.
 Fuzzification
The function of the fuzzification
component is to convert crisp
numbers to equivalent fuzzy sets.
Please notice that the inputs might
require some pre-processing in order
to fit the range of the fuzzy system.
 Defuzzification
The output of the combined
operation is defuzzified before
being broadcast to the external
world.
This implies the conversion of a
fuzzy set to a crisp number.
There are several techniques of
defuzzification.
Conventional vs Fuzzy system
Components of a ...
conventional expert fuzzy
system system
precisevalue
physical physical
device device
fuzzy
fuzzifier value
precise
precise precise
value
value value
fuzzy
model
knowledge
model
fuzzy
defuzzifier
value
Sections of a Fuzzy Logic Control
System

Fuzzifier section
System inputs with range of values
Mapped to membership function can be non-linear in correspondence
Fuzzy control section
Input fuzzy values
Through fuzzy rules
Produce the fuzzy output values
De-fuzzifier section
Fuzzy output values are combined together in values needed for output
 Steps in Designing a Fuzzy Logic Control System
1. Identify the system input variables, their ranges, and
membership functions.
2. Identify the output variables, their ranges, and membership
functions.
3. Identify the rules that describe the relations of the inputs to
the outputs.
4. Determine the de-fuzzifier method of combining fuzzy rules
into system outputs. Calculate
Calculate Fuzzy Combine
Inputs Fuzzy Inputs Rule-Base Crisp Output
Memberships Outputs Outputs
value

Fuzzification step Defuzzification step

Fuzzification step
Example design of a Fuzzy Logic
Control System Cruise Control
The block diagram of the intelligent cruise
control system.
Input membership functions

The three input membership functions

 Fuzzy Logic Rules Table
cruise slow / distance from car ahead fast / distance from car ahead
speed 15 30 45 60 75 15 30 45 60 75

+10 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15

+5 0.15 0.15 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.35 0.35

0 0.15 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.15 0.15 0.35 0.50 0.50

-5 0.35 0.65 0.65 0.85 0.85 0.15 0.35 0.50 0.65 0.85

-10 0.35 0.65 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.15 0.50 0.65 0.85 0.85
Output membership function
The output is the
accelerator percentage
change needed to keep
the car a safe distance
behind the car ahead
and to keep the car at
cruising speed.
Fuzzy Inference: creating fuzzy
output
At the end of the fuzzification step the
working memory module contains the
values of the fuzzified input.
Each production rule is examined and all the
rules that have their premises satisfied `fire'.
Hence, the only rules which do not fire are
those that at least one of their premises has a
membership degree of zero.
In the case that more than one rule fires, this is
common and desirable, the system generates a
single fuzzy output.
output
This is achieved by combining all fuzzy outputs.
The single fuzzy output is then passed to the
defuzzification module which generates a crisp
value.
Then the system is ready to start the entire
process all over again.
SIMPLE EXAMPLE: a four-rule
system
Assumptions
Let X,Y and Z be the linguistic
variables.
Let the membership functions be low
and high.
Let the membership functions be the
same for all linguistic variables.
Define the membership functions as:
low(linguistic) = 1 - t
high(linguistic) = t
where t is a value in the interval [0,1].
 A Simple Example (Membership
Functions)
1
1
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7

0.6 0.7

0.5 0.6

0.4 0.5

0.3 0.4

0.2 0.3
0.1 0.2
0
0.1
0 0.5 1

0
0 0.5 1

LOW
HIGH
A Simple Example (Rules)

The rule base contains the following four

rules:
if X is low and Y is low then Z is high (rule-1)
if X is low and Y is high then Z is low (rule-2)
if X is high and Y is low then Z is low (rule-3)
If X is high and Y is high then Z is high (rule-
4)
A Simple Example (Calculations)
Next assume that the inputs are 0 and
0.32 for the linguistic variables X and Y
respectively.
The problem then is to find if Z is high or
low and its crisp value.
The next steps are followed:
Step-1: Find the membership grade for the
premises of each rule. We have 8 premises
but due to replication only 4 are needed.
Low(X) = 1- t = 1-0 = 1
Low(Y) = 1- t = 1-0.32 = 0.68
High(X) = t = 0
High(Y) = t = 0.32
A Simple Example (Calculations)
Step-2: Identify the rules
that can fire. In our case
only the first two rules
can fire since the last two
rules have a premise with
a zero degree of
1
membership.
Step-3: For each rule that
can fire find the strength X
0.68

of the firing.
Rule-1 = min(1,0.68) = 0.68 0.68

Rule-2 = min(1,0.32) = 0.32 Z

Note that min is used .

because the premises are Y

connected with a logical

AND.
A Simple Example
1

X
0.32

0.32

Rule-2 = min(1,0.32) = 0.32

Y
A Simple Example (Calculations)

Step-4: All the fuzzy outputs are

combined together to form a single
fuzzy subset.
One way is to take the pointwise
maximum value over all fuzzy outputs.
In our case we have two fuzzy
outputs, so for each point we take the
maximum value.
value
 The rule base contains the following
A Simple Example four rules:
if X is low and Y is low then Z is high
(rule-1)
if X is low and Y is high then Z is low
(rule-2)
if X is high and Y is low then Z is low
(rule-3)
If X is high and Y is high then Z is high
(rule-4)

In our case we have two fuzzy outputs, so for each point we take the maximum value.
value
A Simple Example (Calculations)
Step-5: The fuzzy combined output needs
to be converted to a single crisp value.
Using one method which takes the
Average-of-Maxima. With this method
one finds the maximum peak of the fuzzy
combined output - in our case this is
0.68.
Then one collects all the t values for
which the maximum value occurs - in our
case there are 42 cases.
Finally, the crisp value is the average of
such variables - in our case 0.84.
Development
Cycle
Do not discuss in the class this is home reading
 Development Cycle
Define model's functional Define post-model
and operational characteristics normalisation and data
flow
Define fuzzy sets

Define rules

Define acceptable limits

Define method of
defuzzification for performance

Run simulation
of system

Tune and validate the Connect to production

system systems
 Development Cycle
Step 1: The goal is to establish the
characteristics of the system, and also to define
the specific operating properties of the
proposed fuzzy model.
Traditional systems analysis and knowledge
engineering techniques can be employed at this stage.
The designer must identify the relevant and
appropriate inputs to the system; the basic
transformations, if any, that are performed on the
inputs,; and what output is expected from the system.
The designer must also decide if the fuzzy system is a
subsystem of a `global' system and if so to define
where the fuzzy subsystem fits into the `global
architecture', or if it is the `global' system itself.
The numerical ranges of inputs and outputs must also
be specified. This step applies to the development of
all systems. Be prepared to throw away original
versions at this stage.
 Development Cycle
Step 2: The goal is to decompose each
control variable (i.e., inputs and outputs) into
fuzzy sets and to give unique names to them.
It has been reported in the literature that the
number of labels associated with a control variable
should generally be odd and between five and nine.
Also, in order to obtain a smooth transition from a
state to another each label should overlap
somewhat with its neighbours. Overlapping of 10 to
50 percent is advised.
Finally, the density of the fuzzy sets should be
highest around the optimal control point of the
system and should thin out as the distance from
that point increases.
Development Cycle
If possible begin with an exhaustive list
of production rules
Deal with redundant, impossible and
implausible rules and/or conditions later.
When the number of rules increases
dramatically, may be several rule-bases
might be constructed.
Each rule-base to deal with a particular
situation/condition of the system to be
modelled.
Development Cycle
Step 3: The goal is to obtain the
production rules that tie the input values
to the output values.
Since each production rule `declares' a
small chunk of knowledge, the order in the
knowledge base is unimportant.
Nevertheless, in order to maintain the
knowledge base one should group the
production rules by their premise variable.
How many rules is obviously dependent on
the application and is related to the
number of control variables.
Development Cycle
Step 4: The goal is to decide on the way that is
going to be used in order to convert a an output
fuzzy set into a crisp solution variable.
As already indicated in another section there are
many ways to perform the conversion but by and
large, process control applications use the
centroid technique.
The rest of the steps are similar to any modelling
exercise. For instance, at the end of the fuzzy
system construction the process of simulation
commences. The model is compared against
known test cases and the results are validated.
When the results are not as desired changes are
made until the desired performance is achieved.
Popular Fuzzy
Inference
Methods
Popular Fuzzy Inference Methods
Under the fuzzy inference process the
grade of each premise is found and
applied to the conclusion part of each
rule.
MIN or PRODUCT are two popular inference
methods.
With MIN inferencing the output of the
conclusion part is clipped off at a height
equal to the rule's degree of firing.
This was used in the simple example before and
the MIN inference for the first rule is re-shown
below
(Recall that the rule's degree of firing was 0.68):
 MIN
1 Original High
0.9
0.68
0.8
0.7 MIN
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1
 PRODUCT
With PRODUCT inferencing the
output membership function is
scaled by the rule's degree of firing.
Using the first rule of the simple
example and the PRODUCT inference
we get the following
 Product
1 Original High
0.9
0.8
0.7
Product
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1
 Popular
methods for
combining
outputs
 Popular methods for
combining outputs
Under the combining outputs process
all outputs are combined together to
produce a single fuzzy output.
MAX and SUM are two popular
techniques for combining outputs.
With MAX the pointwise maximum for all
fuzzy outputs is taken.
For the first rule of the simple example
we used the MAX techniques which
resulted in the following diagram:
 1
Max
0.9
0.8
0.7 MAX
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3 Rule 2
0.2
0.1 Rule 1

0
0 0.5 1
 SUM
With SUM the pointwise sum for all fuzzy outputs is
taken.
Again for the first rule of the simple example we get:

1
0.9 SUM
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5 Rule 1
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 Rule 2

0
0 0.5 1
Popular defuzzification methods
Under the defuzzification process a fuzzy output is
converted to a crisp number.
Two of the more popular techniques are the MAXIMUM
and the CENTROID.
With MAXIMUM one selects the maximum value of the
fuzzy output as the crisp value.
There are several variations to the MAXIMUM theme.
One such variation is the AVERAGE-OF-MAXIMA which was
used in the simple example and gave us a crisp value of 0.84.

With the CENTROID method, the center of gravity

of the fuzzy output gives the crisp value.
Using PRODUCT inferencing and the SUM
combination the CENTROID results in a crisp value
of 0.56.
Example of calculation
of Maximum
n
fuzzy point * strength of point
i 1
n
fuzzy point
i 1

where n is the total number of fuzzy points

 Calculating
the output of a
rule
 Ways of Combining Fuzzy Logic
Output Values
There are four different
techniques to combine the
fuzzy logic rules output
values.

They are:
Maximizer
Average
Centroid
Singleton
 Calculating the output of a
rule

Rules have promises which are

usually combined together by the
connective and.
The output is calculated by taking
the degree of membership of the
lesser of all premises as the value of
the combination and truncating the
output fuzzy set at that level.
Calculating the output of a rule

Output
Premise-1 0.45

Truncated at
0.45 0.2

Premise-2
0.2
Combining rule outputs
When all rules have been evaluated
a single fuzzy set is calculated by
combining all outputs.
The combination involves the
connective or.
The single output is calculated by
taking the maximum of their
respective output fuzzy sets
grades at each point along the
horizontal axis.
 Combining rule outputs
Output-1 Combined Output
0.2

0.8
Output-2

Think about the set of fuzzy rules as a

network with fuzzy literals and operators
MIN, MAX, etc. In primary inputs you have
Shifted fuzzification, in primary outputs you have
horizontally defuzzification. The network analogy is very
useful in your thinking about fuzzy logic, mv
logic, or any other kind of data structure to
store knowledge.

Do in class a complete example of designing a fuzzy logic network

for a simple robot control with about 6 rules. Discuss various
operators and fuzzifiers, defuzzifiers.
 STATIC,
ADAPTIVE,
SELF-
ORGANISING
SYSTEMS
 STATIC, ADAPTIVE, SELF-
ORGANISING SYSTEMS
Up to now we have seen that fuzzy logic
supports the task of designing a control
system.
system
What we examined in previous sections is known
as the `static' fuzzy system.
In such a system, conventional techniques are
employed in order to elicit or induce production
rules.
Such a system, receives inputs which are then
normalised and converted to fuzzy
representations, the knowledge base is
executed, an output fuzzy set is generated which
is then converted to a crisp value.
value
static' fuzzy system.
Input

Normalisation and
fuzzification

Execution of rules Output fuzzy

set
Inference engine

Production rules

Fuzzy sets

Defuzzification

Output
 STATIC, ADAPTIVE, SELF-
ORGANISING SYSTEMS
The rules do not change, except if modified by the hand
of the designer, for all the knowledge base lifetime.
Static systems are fine for applications in which the
environment is known and predictable.
But because they can not adapt to gradual changes in their
environments they can lead to disaster when the
assumptions upon which they are built are violated.
An adaptive system adjusts to time or process
conditions.
This means that such a system modifies:
the charactersitics of the rules,
the topology of the fuzzy sets, and
the method of defuzzification
among others.
An adaptive
system
Input
Performance
Buffer
metric
Normalisation and
fuzzification

Output fuzzy
Execution of rules
set
Inference engine

Production rules
Adaptation
machine
Fuzzy sets

Defuzzification

Output
STATIC, ADAPTIVE, SELF-
ORGANISING SYSTEMS
A performance metric, often another expert
system or an algorithm, compares the current
and the stored array of past solutions and the
comparison result is passed to an adaptation
machine.
The adaptation machine, often another expert
system, decides what changes to make in the
underlying fuzzy model.
For instance:
the contribution weights connected with each rule can
be modified or
the membership functions re-drawn.
Misconceptions
about Fuzzy
concepts
 Fuzziness is not Vague
we shall have a look at some propositions.

Dimitris is six feet tall

The first proposition (traditional) has a crisp
truth value of either TRUE or FALSE.

He is tall
The second proposition is vague.
It does not provide sufficient information for
us to make a decision, either fuzzy or crisp.
We do not know the value of the pronoun.
Is it Dimitris, John or someone else?
 Fuzziness is not Vague
Andrei is tall
The third proposition is a fuzzy
proposition.
It is true to some degree
depending in the context, i.e., the
universe of discourse.
It might be SomeWhat True if we
are referring to basketball
players or it might be Very True if
we are referring to horse-jockeys.
Fuzziness is not Multi-valued
logic
The limitations of two-valued logic were recognised very
early.
A number of different logic theories based on multiple values
of truth have been formulated through the years.
For example, in three-valued logic three truth values have
been employed.
These are TRUTH, FALSE, and UNKNOWN represented by 1, 0
and 0.5 respectively.

In 1921 the first N-valued logic was introduced.

The set of truth values Tn were assumed to be evenly divided
over the closed interval [0,1].
Fuzzy logic may be considered as an extension of multi-
valued logic but they are somewhat different.
Multi-valued logic is still based on exact reasoning whereas
fuzzy logic is approximate reasoning.
 Fuzziness is not
Probability
This is better explained using an example.
Let X be the set of all liquids (i.e., the universe of
discourse) .
Let L be a subset of X which includes all suitable for
drinking liquids.
Suppose now that you find two bottles, A and B.
The labels do not provide any clues about the
contents.
Bottle A label is marked as membership of L is 0.9.
The label of bottle B is marked as probability of L is
0.9.
Given that you have to drink from the one you
choose, the problem is of how to interpret the labels.
 Fuzziness is not
Probability
Well, membership of 0.9 means that the
contents of A are fairly similar to perfectly
potable liquids.
If, for example, a perfectly liquid is pure water
then bottle A might contain, say, tonic water.
Probability of 0.9 means something completely
different.
You have a 90% chance that the contents are
potable and 10% chance that the contents will
be unsavoury, some kind of acid maybe.
Hence, with bottle A you might drink something
that is not pure but with bottle B you might
drink something deadly. So choose bottle A.
 Fuzziness is not
Probability
Opening both bottles you observe beer (bottle A) and
hydrochloric acid (bottle B).
The outcome of this observation is that the membership
stays the same whereas the probability drops to zero.
All in all:
probability measures the likelihood that a future event will
occur,
fuzzy logic measures the ambiguity of events that have already
occurred.
In fact, fuzzy sets and probability exist as parts of a
greater Generalized Information Theory.
This theory also includes:
Dempster-Shafer evidence theory,
possibility theory,
and so on.
Applications of
Fuzzy concepts
 Where is fuzzy logic
used?
Fuzzy logic is a powerful problem-solving methodology.
It is used directly and indirectly in a number of applications.
Fuzzy logic is now being applied all over Japan, Europe
and more recently in the United States of America.
It is true though that all we ever hear about is Japanese fuzzy
logic.
Products such as:
the Panasonic rice cooker,
Hitachi's vacuum cleaner,
Minolta's cameras,
Sony's PalmTop computer,
and so on.
This is not unexpected since Japan adopted the
technology first.
Where is fuzzy logic
used?
whereas in the West companies might
keep their fuzzy development secret
because of the implication of the word
`fuzzy',
or because companies want to preserve
competitive advantage,
or because fuzzy logic is embedded in
products without advertisement.
Most applications of fuzzy logic use it as
the concealed logic system for expert
systems.
 Where is fuzzy logic
used?
The areas of potential fuzzy implementation
are numerous and not just for control:
Speech recognition,
fault analysis,
decision making,
image analysis,
scheduling
and many more are areas where fuzzy thinking
can help.
Hence, fuzzy logic is not just control but can
be utilized for other problems.
Where is fuzzy logic used?
One business problem, namely that of fraud
detection, was recently addressed using fuzzy
logic.
The system detects probable fraudulent behavior:
by evaluating all the characteristics of a provider's claim
data in parallel,
against the normal behavior of a small ( in demographic
terms ) community.
An all-American success story is the use of fuzziness on
keeping a commercial refrigerator thermally controlled (0.1 C).
The excitement comes due to the fact that this
refrigerator has flown on several space shuttle flights.
Where is fuzzy logic used?
Another interesting application has been reported by
Aptronix Inc.
Fuzzy logic was there used as a means of
determining correct focus distance for cameras with
automatic focusing system.
Traditionally, such a camera focuses at the middle of
the view finder.
This can be inaccurate though when the object of
interest is not at the center.
Using fuzzy logic, three distances are measured from
the view finder; left, center and right.
For each measurement a plausibility value is
calculated and the measurement with the highest
plausibility is deemed as the place where the object
of interest is located.
When to use Fuzzy Logic?
If the system to be modelled is
a linear system which can be
represented by a mathematical
equation or by a series of rules
then straightforward
techniques should be used.
Alternatively, if the system is
complex, fuzzy logic may be the
technique to follow.
 When to use Fuzzy Logic?
We define a complex system :
when it is nonlinear, time-variant, ill-
defined;
when variables are continuous;
when a mathematical model is either
too difficult to encode or does not
exist or is too complicated and
expensive to be evaluated;
when noisy inputs;
and when an expert is available who
can specify the rules underlying the
system behavior.
 Summary
Fuzzy logic captures intuitive, human
expressions.
Fuzzy sets, statements, and rules are the
basis of control.
The technique is extremely powerful, and
appears in mills at a growing rate.
It is combined with other methods and is
the base of soft computing
Used much in Intelligent Robotics
 Sources
Paul and Mildred Burkey
Weilin Pan
Xuekun Kou
A. Ferworn
Kevin Morris
Dr Dimitris Tsaptsinos
Kingston University, Mathematics
http://www.kingston.ac.uk/~ma_s435
ma_s435@kingston.ac.uk