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INTRODUCTION AND
BASIC CONCEPTS
Presented By;
Classical thermodynamics: A
macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require a
knowledge of the behavior of individual
particles.
Statistical thermodynamics: A
microscopic approach, based on the
average behavior of large groups of
individual particles.
Conservation of energy
principle for the human body.
W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration
A body weighing
60 kgf on earth
will weigh only 10
kgf on the moon.
Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.
To be dimensionally
homogeneous, all the
terms in an equation
must have the same unit.
Closed system
(Control mass):
A fixed
amount of mass,
and no mass
can cross its
boundary.
An open system (a
control volume) with one
inlet and one exit.
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PROPERTIES
OF A SYSTEM
Continuum
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Specific volume
Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
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Adiabatic process:
No heat is exchanged between the system and the
environment.
Diabatic process:
Heat is exchanged between the system and the
environment.
Cycle: A process during which the initial and final
states are identical.
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Temperature Scales
P versus T plots
All temperature scales are based on
of the
some easily reproducible states such as
experimental
the freezing and boiling points of water:
data obtained
the ice point and the steam point.
from a constantIce point: A mixture of ice and water that
volume gas
is in equilibrium with air saturated with
thermometer
vapor at 1 atm pressure (0C or 32F).
using four
Steam point: A mixture of liquid water
different gases
and water vapor (with no air) in
equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100C or at different (but
low) pressures.
212F).
Celsius scale: in SI unit system
Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system
Thermodynamic temperature scale: A
temperature scale that is independent of
the properties of any substance.
Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
A temperature scale nearly identical to
the Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas
temperature scale. The temperatures
on this scale are measured using a
constant-volume gas thermometer.
A constant-volume gas thermometer would
read 273.15C at absolute zero pressure. 21
Comparison of
temperature
scales.
Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.
The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases of water
coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
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PRESSURE
Pressure: A normal force exerted
by a fluid per unit area
68 kg
136 kg
Afeet=300cm2
0.23 kgf/cm2
0.46 kgf/cm2
P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2
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Pressure in a liquid
at rest increases
linearly with
distance from the
free surface.
The pressure is the
same at all points on
a horizontal plane in
a given fluid
regardless of
geometry, provided
that the points are
interconnected by the
same fluid.
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The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the
pressure drop across a
flow section or a flow
device by a differential
manometer.
The basic
manometer.
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Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solidstate pressure transducers, work on the principle
that an electric potential is generated in a
crystalline substance when it is subjected to
mechanical pressure.
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Heat
Heat is the random
motion of the particles in
the gas, i.e. a degraded
from of kinetic energy.
Nice web simulation
gas simulation
Specific Heat
Observational Fact: It is easy to change the temperature of some things
(e.g. air) and hard to change the temperature of others (e.g. water)
The amount of heat (Q) added into a body of mass m to change its
temperature an amount T is given by
Q=m C T
C is called the specific heat and depends on the material and
the units used.
Note: since we are looking at changes in temperature, either
Kelvin or Celsius will do.
Units of Heat
Heat is a form of energy so we can always use
Joules.
More common in thermodynamics is the
calorie: By definition 1 calorie is the amount
of heat required to change the temperature of 1
gram of water 1C.
1 Cal = 1 food calorie = 1000 cal.
cal J
Q
C
o
o
mT g C kg C
Note that by definition, the specific heat
of water is 1 cal/gC.
Material
J/kgC
cal/gC
Water
4186
Ice
2090
0.50
Steam
2010
0.48
Silver
234
0.056
Aluminum
900
0.215
Copper
387
0.0924
Gold
129
0.0308
Iron
448
0.107
Lead
128
0.0305
Brass
380
0.092
Glass
837
0.200
Wood
1700
0.41
Ethyl Alcohol
2400
0.58
Beryllium
1830
0.436
Conduction
Rate of
Heat Flow
Q A
T
t
d
Thermal
Conductivity
Contact Temperatur e
Area Difference
Thickness
Example
Convection
Typically very complicated.
Very efficient way to transfer
energy.
Vortex formation is very
common feature.
liquid convection
vortex formation
Sunspot
solar simulation
Radiation
Everything that has a temperature radiates
energy.
Method that energy from sun reaches the
earth.
Q
4
4
P eAT (const )T
t
Heat Engines
If we can create an engine that operates
in a cycle, we return to our starting point
each time and therefore have the same
internal energy. Thus, for a complete
cycle
Q=W
Qhot= W+Qcold
or
Qhot-Qcold=W
(what goes in must come out)
Efficiency
We want to write an expression that describes
how well our heat engine works.
Qhot=energy that you pay for.
W=work done (what you want.)
Qcold= Waste energy (money).
Efficiency = e = W/Qhot
Qhot Qcold
Qcold
W
e
1
Qhot
Qhot
Qhot
Newcomen Engine
(First real steam engine)
e=0.005