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1. Greenstone Belt
Greenstone belts are generally elongate, Archean to Proterozoic
terrains comprising intrusive and extrusive mafic to ultramafic
igneous rocks, felsic volcanics, and inter-flow or cover
sedimentary rocks.
Greenstone belts occur sandwiched between regions dominated by
granitoids and gneiss.
Greenstones are generally of low to moderate metamorphic grade.
The term greenstone comes from the green color of many mafic to
ultramafic constituents due to an abundance of chlorite.
A common igneous rock in greenstones is komatiite. Komatiites are
rocks with greater than 18 weight percent magnesium oxide and a
well-developed spinifex texture of inter-locking bladed or acicular
crystals of olivine or pyroxene.
The alternate view is that tectonic processes comparable to presentday plate tectonics were operative during the Late Archean, and
possibly were similar to plate tectonics since the Hadean-Archean
transition (between 4.0 and 4.2 billion years ago). In a plate tectonic
context, greenstones may have formed in volcanic arcs or inter-arc or
back-arc basins. Greenstone belts are interpreted to represent collages
of oceanic crust, island arcs, accretionary prisms, and possible
plateaus. Recent experimental work on the origin of komatiitic magmas
indicates that they were hydrous and that temperatures for their
formation do not indicate that the Archean upper mantle was
significantly hotter than today. Komatiites and similar rocks have also
been found in younger orogens. Komatiites may not therefore require
different tectonic processes or conditions for their formation, as
previously thought.
2. Komatiite
Komatiites are ultramafic mantle-derived volcanic rocks. They
have low SiO2, low K2O, low Al2O3, and high to extremely high
MgO.
Komatiites were named for their type locality along the Komati
River in South Africa.
True komatiites are very rare and essentially restricted to rocks
of Archean age and most are greater than two billion years old,
restricted in distribution to the Archaean shield areas.
Komatiites occur with other ultramafic and high-magnesian
mafic volcanic rocks in Archaean greenstone belts.
Komatiite core
Komatiite
Dimension:
15 cm in
vertical scale
Light: chert
jasper bands
Dark: magnetiterich bands
All BIFs between 3.8 and 1.8 Ga show REE patterns with pronounced
positive Eu anomalies, negative Ce anomalies and depletion in the light
REE. These patterns are the result of chemical precipitation from
solutions that represent mixtures of seawater and hydrothermal input (of
Fe and Si) from spreading centers in oceanic crust.
The Neoproterozoic BIFs (e.g., Rapitan iron-formation, Yukon, Canada)
display a lack of the Eu anomaly, and their overall REE pattern is very
similar to that of modern ocean water at 100 m. This suggests that the
hydrothermal input was highly diluted by ocean water at this late
Precambrian time. The Neoproterozoic iron-formations commonly show
a close association with glaciogenic deposits. The Rapitan BIF is
interpreted as having been deposited during a major transgressive
event with a rapid sea-level rise during an interglacial period, after
earlier buildup of ferrous iron in solution in deeper water during a glacial
period.
Cyanobacteria
Throughout the Archean there was little to no free oxygen in the
atmosphere (<1% of presence levels). What little was produced by
cyanobacteria, was probably consumed by the weathering process.
Once rocks at the surface were sufficiently oxidized, more oxygen could
remain free in the atmosphere.
During the Proterozoic the amount of free O2 in the atmosphere rose
from 1 - 10 %. Most of this was released by cyanobacteria, which
increase in abundance in the fossil record 2.3 Ga. Present levels of O2
were probably not achieved until ~400 Ma.
Supplement-1
Evolution of the Hydrosphere and the Atmosphere
The atmosphere and the oceans both arose from volcanic degassing
very early in earth history. The lighter fraction made up the atmosphere
while the heavier fraction made up the oceans. Also the presence of
water served as transporter of soluble solids and gases between the
land, sea and atmosphere.
Early Degassing : Loss of Noble Gases
Helium, argon and xenon in low concentration when compared to their
cosmic abundance. It must have been lost from the earth at high rates,
early on (i.e., the first 50 million years of earth history) in order to be so
low now.
If degassing from volcanoes has always has the same composition,
the major gasses would be water vapor and CO2 while the minor
gasses would be H2S, CO, H2, N2, CH4, NH3, HF, HCl, and Ar. But no
oxygen.
A. Oceanic Oxygen
1. 4.0-3.2 Billion Years Ago
a. Oxygen held in mantle and oceanic crust. Little outgassed
b. That which did was trapped in evaporite precipitation and
the oxidation of CO to CO2.
c. Fe+2 and Mn+2 accumulated in the sea from hydrothermal
vents and the leaching of volcanics and immature
sediments. These two are soluble in their +2 state. The
lack of O2 kept them reduced and soluble.
B. Atmospheric Oxygen.
Oxygen produced by photoautotrophs was used in BIF and
manganese deposits. Once O2 production increased beyond that
needed by BIF and manganese deposit formations, could it
accumulate in the ocean and in the atmosphere.
Free oxygen began to accumulate in the atmosphere between 2.4
and 1.9 billion years ago. Evidence for this includes the following.
1. BIF deposits iron-leaching from paleosols disappear after 1.9
billion years. The presence of oxygen rendered iron and manganese
insoluble, hence they would not leach. Leaching could only occur if
iron and manganese were in the +2 state and therefore soluble and
mobile.
2. Presence of detrital uraninite and pyrite 2.3 billion years ago, then
disappears. Grains of uraninite and pyrite indicate they are insoluble in the
absense of oxygen. Once oxygen is present, they dissolve and won't occur
as solid grains (i.e., detrital).
3. Development of hematite-rich paleosols by 2.2 and 2.0 billion years
indicates that there is enough oxygen in the atmosphere to oxidize iron
(i.e., rust). This indicates an increase in atmospheric oxygen of 15 fold 1.9
billion years ago.
4. Appearance of CaSO4 in evaporites after 1.9 billion years ago indicates
that there is enough atmospheric or oceanic oxygen to oxidize sulfides to
sulfates.
5. First appearance of redbeds (red conglomerates, sandstones and shales)
after 2.3 billion years ago
6. Accumulation of organic-rich limestones between 0.9 and 0.6 billion years
ago indicates the retention of carbon compounds from photosynthesis
which means an equal volume of oxygen had to be released into the
atmosphere.
Supplements-2
Types of BIF
Archean Earth Banded Iron Formation (BIF) has been
suggested as a possible terrestrial analog for Early Mars
(Calvin, 1998).
Two types of BIF in the United States and Canada have been
differentiated based on their respective origins. The Algoma type
deposits in Ontario, Canada are in close proximity to ancient volcanic
centers suggesting a sub-aqueous hydrothermal origin similar to
modern day sea-floor spreading centers (Gross, 1983). The Lake
Superior type BIF deposits in the upper peninsula of Michigan are
not associated with extrusive volcanic materials and are therefore
interpreted as chemical precipitates of iron-rich waters in a shallow
sea (James, 1954). The Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES)
discovery of crystalline, gray hematite in sedimentary basin type
deposits on Mars supports the use of Lake Superior type BIF as a
terrestrial analog.
The Sinus Meridiani and Aram Chaos hematite sites are not in close
proximity to a volcanic center, and do not exhibit any lava flow
features (Christensen, et al., 2001). The Sinus Meridiani hematite
occupies a smooth unit with abrupt boundaries suggesting that it
exists within a stratigraphic layer. The Aram Chaos hematite appears
to be within a closed basin around which outflow channels are
common suggesting an aqueous origin. In both sites, the hematite
appears to be part of layered, sedimentary rock units that suggest
aqueous environments (Christensen, et al., 2001).
The Lake Superior type BIF occurs in four principal facies: sulfide,
carbonate, silicate, and oxide (James, 1954). These facies grade
into each other in the field reflecting changes in the oxidation state
of the water and occur as thin laminae alternating with chert layers.
The mm scale laminations of these rocks will not be evident in
large- scale (3km x 6km) TES spectra. The iron-rich minerals
present in each facies are possible auxiliary minerals for the low
albedo hematite regions on Mars. These minerals are: pyrite in the
sulfide facies, siderite in the carbonate facies, minnesotaite and
stilpnomelane in the silicate facies, and magnetite and hematite in
the oxide facies. A field trip to the Lake Superior type deposits in
the Marquette and Gogebic iron districts of Michigan has provided
a thorough rock sampling of the different facies, including several
types of crystalline, gray hematite. Micaceous, specular hematite
with a schistose texture is highly metamorphosed and is probably
not seen on the surface of Mars.
Their development and distribution along volcanic belts and deepseated faults and rift systems was controlled mainly by tectonic rather
than by biogenic or atmospheric factors. Sulphide facies were
deposited close to the higher temperature effusive centres; iron oxide
and silicate facies were intermediate, and manganese-iron facies
were deposited from cooler hydrothermal vents and in areas distal
from active hydrothermal discharge. Overlapping and lateral
transitions of one kind of lithofacies to another appear to be common
and are to be expected. ORE CONTROLS: The primary control is
favourable iron-rich stratigraphic horizons with little clastic
sedimentation, often near volcanic centres. Some Algoma-type ironformations contain ore deposits due to metamorphic enhancement of
grain size or structural thickening of the mineralized horizon.
ECONOMIC FACTORS
GRADE AND TONNAGE: Ore bodies range in size from about 1000
to less than 100 Mt with grades ganging from 15 to 45% Fe,
averaging 25% Fe. Precambrian deposits usually contain less than
2% Mn, but many Paleozoic iron-formations, such as those near
Woodstock, New Brunswick, contain 10 to 40 % Mn and have Fe/Mn
ratios of 40:1 to 1:50. The largest B.C. deposit, the Falcon, contains
inferred reserves of 5.28 Mt grading 37.8% Fe.
ECONOMIC LIMITATIONS: Usually large-tonnage open pit
operations. Granular, medium to coarse- grained textures with well
defined, sharp grain boundaries are desirable for the concentration
and beneficiation of the crude ore. Strongly metamorphosed ironformation and magnetite lithofacies are usually preferred. Oxide
facies iron-formation normally has a low content of minor elements,
especially Na, K, S and As, which have deleterious effects in the
processing of the ore and quality of steel produced from it.
Mineralization
Ore age Palaeoproterozoic 1880 Ma
Ore mineralogy Hydrothermal alteration
Magnetite: Albitization and Biotitization
Deposit type
Magnetite-apatite deposits (tabular and pipe-like bodies, dykes) (Kiruna): Fe, P
Ore shape
Concordant to subconcordant mass, lens or pod of massive to submassive ore
Host rock age
Palaeoproterozoic 1880 3 Ma U/Pb
Host rock mineralogy
Actinolite, Fe-Mg mica, Apatite
Host rock lithology
Acidic volcanic rock, Basic volcanic rock
Host rock formation names
Kiruna Porphyries
Economy
Fe Iron (metal)
Past Production average Reserve: 1 200 000 000 t
Average grade: 60%