Section-3

FLUID DYNAMICS

CONTENTS
Introduction
The continuity equation
The Bernoulli Equation
Application of Bernoulli equation
The momentum equation
Application of momentum equation

FLOW RATE
Mass Flow Rate
m = dm/dt = mass/ time taken to accumulate this mass
Example:
An empty bucket weighs 2.0kg. After 7 seconds of collecting water
the bucket weighs 8.0kg, then:
m = dm/dt = (8-2)/7 = 0.85 kg/s

FLOW RATE
Volume Flow Rate/ Discharge
More commonly we use volume flow rate also know as discharge.
The symbol normally used for discharge is Q.
discharge, Q = volume of fluid/ time
Example:
If the bucket above fills with 2.0 liters in 25 seconds, what is the
discharge?
Q = (2.0 X 10-3)/25
= 0.0008 m3/s =0.8 l/s

FLOW RATE
Discharge & Mean Velocity
If we know the discharge and the diameter of a pipe, we can
deduce the mean velocity

Cross sectional area of pipe is A, Mean velocity is um.

FLOW RATE
Discharge & Mean Velocity
In time t, a cylinder of fluid will pass point X with a volume Ax umx
t.
The discharge will thus be Q =volume /time
Q= A um t/ t
Q= A um
Example:
If A = 1.2x10-3m2 And discharge, Q is 24 l/s, calculate mean velocity
Q/A =um

FLOW RATE
Discharge & Mean Velocity
Note how we have called this the mean velocity.
This is because the velocity in the pipe is not constant across the
cross section.

This idea, that mean velocity multiplied by the area gives the
discharge, applies to all situations - not just pipe flow.

CONTINUITY
This principle of conservation of mass says matter cannot be
created or destroyed
This is applied in fluids to fixed volumes, known as control volumes
(or surfaces)
For any control volume the principle of conservation of mass says
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time+
Increase in control volume per unit time se of mass

CONTINUITY
For steady flow there is no increase in the mass within the control
volume, so
For steady flow, Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per
unit time
Applying to a streamtube: Mass enters and leaves only through the
two ends (it cannot cross the streamtube wall).

CONTINUITY
Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time

Or for steady flow,

This is the continuity equation
In a real pipe (or any other vessel) we use the mean velocity and
write

CONTINUITY
For incompressible, fluid 1 = 2 =

(dropping the m subscript)

This is the continuity equation most often used.

This equation is a very powerful tool. It will be used repeatedly
throughout the rest of this course.
Some example applications of Continuity

CONTINUITY
A liquid is flowing from left to right.
By the continuity
As we are considering a liquid,

Now try this on a diffuser, a pipe which expands or diverges as in

the figure below,

CONTINUITY
If d1=30mm and d2=40mm and the velocity u2=3.0m/s.
The velocity entering the diffuser is given by,

u1= (40/30)2 x 3.0 = 5.3 m/s

Velocities in pipes coming from a junction

CONTINUITY
mass flow into the junction = mass flow out
1Q1 = 2Q2 + 3Q3
When incompressible Q1 = Q2 + Q3
A1u1 = A2u2 + A3u3
Example:
If pipe 1 diameter = 50mm, mean velocity 2m/s, pipe 2 diameter =
40mm takes 30% of total discharge and pipe 3 diameter = 60mm.
What are the values of discharge and mean velocity in each pipe ?

THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

The Bernoulli equation is a statement of the principle of
conservation of energy along a streamline
It can be written:

These terms represent:

Pressure energy per unit weight + Kinetic energy per unit weight +
Potential energy per unit weight = Total energy per unit weight
These term all have units of length, they are often referred to as
the following:
Pressure head =

Velocity head =

THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

X=L

F1 on 2

-F2 on 1

Work is done by a section of water applying a force on a second

section in front of it over a displacement. According to Newtons 3 rd
law, the second section of water applies an equal and opposite
force back on the first. Thus is does negative work as the water
still moves FORWARD. Pressure*Area is substituted for Force.

THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

Work is also done by GRAVITY as the water travels a vertical

displacement UPWARD. As the water moves UP the force due to
gravity is DOWN. So the work is NEGATIVE.

THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

Now lets find the NET WORK done by
gravity and the water acting on itself.

WHAT DOES THE NET WORK EQUAL TO? A

CHANGE IN KINETIC ENERGY!

THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

Consider that Density = Mass per unit Volume AND

that VOLUME is equal to AREA time LENGTH

THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

We can now cancel out the AREA and LENGTH

Leaving:

THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

Moving everything related to one side results in:

What this basically shows is that Conservation of Energy holds true within
a fluid and that if you add the PRESSURE, the KINETIC ENERGY (in terms
of density) and POTENTIAL ENERGY (in terms of density) you get the
SAME VALUE anywhere along a streamline.

THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

Restrictions in application of Bernoullis
equation

Flow is steady
Density is constant (incompressible)
Friction losses are negligible
It relates the states at two points along a single streamline, (not
conditions on two different streamlines)
All these conditions are impossible to satisfy at any instant in time!
Fortunately, for many real situations where the conditions are
approximately satisfied, the equation gives very good results.

THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

Water circulates throughout the house in a hot-water heating system.
If the water is pumped at a speed of 0.50 m/s through a 4.0 cm
diameter pipe in the basement under a pressure of 3.0 atm, what will
be the flow speed and pressure in a 2.6 cm-diameter pipe on the
second floor 5.0 m above?
1 atm = 1x105 Pa

A1v1 A1v2

r12 v1 r22 v2
(0.04) 2 0.50 (0.026) 2 v2
v2
1 2
1
vo gho P v 2 gh
2
2
1
1
5
2
3 x10 (1000)( 0.50) (1000)(9.8)( 0) P (1000)(1.183) 2 (1000)(9.8)(5)
2
2
P
Po

THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

Practical use of the Bernoullis equation
A fluid, density = 960 kg/m3 is flowing steadily through the
above tube. The section diameters are d1=100mm and d2=80mm.
The gauge pressure at 1 is p1=200kN/m2. The velocity at 1 is
u1=5m/s. The tube is horizontal (z1=z2). What is the gauge
pressure at section 2?
Solve

THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

Applications of the Bernoullis equation
The Bernoulli equation is applicable to many situations not just the
pipe flow.
Here we will see its application to flow measurement from tanks,
within pipes as well as in open channels.

Pitot Tube
The Pitot tube is a simple velocity measuring device.
Uniform velocity flow hitting a solid blunt body, has
streamlines similar to this:

PITOT TUBE
Some move to the left and some to the right. The center one hits
the blunt body and stops.
At this point (2) velocity is zero. The fluid does not move at this
one point. This point is known as the stagnation point.
Using the Bernoulli equation we can calculate the pressure at this
point.
Along the central streamline at 1: velocity u1 , pressure p1 at the
stagnation point of: u2 = 0. (Also z1 = z2)

PITOT TUBE
How can we use this?
The blunt body does not have to be a solid. I could be a static
column of fluid.
Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot tube within the
pipe can be used as shown below to measure velocity of flow.

PITOT TUBE
We have the equation for p2 ,

We now have an expression for velocity from two pressure

measurements and the application of the Bernoulli equation.

PITOT STATIC TUBE

The necessity of two piezometers
makes this arrangement awkward.
The Pitot static tube combines the
tubes and they can then be easily
connected to a manometer.
The holes on the side connect to one
side of a manometer, while the central
hole connects to the other side of the
manometer.

PITOT STATIC TUBE

Using the theory of the manometer,

We know that

,giving

PITOT STATIC TUBE

The Pitot/Pitot-static is:
Simple to use (and analyze)
Gives velocities (not discharge)
May block easily as the holes are small.

VENTURI
METER
The Venturi meter is a device
for measuring discharge in a
pipe.
It is a rapidly converging
section which increases the
velocity of flow and hence
reduces the pressure.
It then returns to the original
dimensions of the pipe by a
gently diverging diffuser
section.

VENTURI METER

By continuity

Substituting and rearranging gives

VENTURI METER
The theoretical (ideal) discharge is uxA.
Actual discharge takes into account the losses due to friction, we
include a coefficient of discharge (Cd=0.9)

In terms of the manometer readings

VENTURI METER

Giving

This expression does not include any elevation terms. (z1 or z2)
When used with a manometer, The Venturimeter can be used
without knowing its angle.

Venturi Meter Design

The diffuser assures a gradual and steady deceleration after the
throat. So that pressure rises to something near that before the
meter.
The angle of the diffuser is usually between 6 and 8 degrees.
Wider and the flow might separate from the walls increasing energy
loss.
If the angle is less the meter becomes very long and pressure losses
again become significant.
The efficiency of the diffuser of increasing pressure back to the
original is rarely greater than 80%.
Care must be taken when connecting the manometer so that no
burrs are present.

FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE

Flow from a tank through a hole in the side.

The edges of the hole are sharp to minimize frictional losses by

minimizing the contact between the hole and the liquid.
The streamlines at the orifice contract reducing the area of flow.
This contraction is called the vena contracta.
The amount of contraction must be known to calculate the flow.

FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE

Apply Bernoulli along the streamline joining point 1 on the surface
to point 2 at the center of the orifice.
At the surface velocity is negligible (u1 = 0) and the pressure
atmospheric (p1 = 0).
At the orifice the jet is open to the air so again the pressure is
atmospheric (p2 = 0).
If we take the datum line through the orifice then z1 = h and z2 =0,
leaving

FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE

This theoretical value of velocity is an overestimate as friction
losses have not been taken into account.
A coefficient of velocity is used to correct the theoretical velocity,
uactual = Cv utheoretical
Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity, they usually lie in
the range( 0.97 - 0.99)
The discharge through the orifice is jet area x jet velocity.
The area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta not
the area of the orifice.
We use a coefficient of contraction to get the area of the
jet

FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE

Giving discharge through the orifice:
Q = Au

FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE

As the tank empties the level of water falls.
The discharge will also drop.

hi

The tank has a cross sectional area of A.in a time dt

the level falls by dhThe flow out of the tank is

FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE

This Q is the same as the flow out of the orifice so

Integrating between the initial level, h1, and final= level, h2, gives the time it takes to
fall this height

FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE

What if the tank is feeding into another?
Apply Bernoulli from point 1 on the surface of the deeper tank to
point 2 at the centre of the orifice,

FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE

The time for the levels to equalise can be found by integrating this
equation as before.
By the continuity equation

FLOW THROUGH A SMALL ORIFICE

Integrating between 2 levels

Flow over weirs and notches

It is a device for measuring discharge.

A weir is a notch on a larger scale - usually found in rivers.
A weir is a notch on a larger scale - usually found in rivers.
It is used as both a discharge measuring device and a device
to raise water levels.
There are many different designs of weir.
We will look at sharp crested weirs.

Flow over weirs and notches

Weir Assumptions.
velocity of the fluid approaching the weir is small so we can
ignore kinetic energy.
The velocity in the flow depends only on the depth below
free surface

These assumptions are fine for tanks with notches or reservoirs with weirs, in rivers with
high velocity approaching the weir is substantial the kinetic energy must
be taken into account

Flow over weirs and notches

A general weir equation
Consider a horizontal strip of width b, depth h below the
free surface
Velocity through the strip

Discharge through the strip,

Flow over weirs and notches

A general weir equation
Integrating from the free surface, h=0, to the weir crest,
h=H, gives the total theoretical discharge,
This is different for every differently shaped weir or notch.

Flow over weirs and notches

A general weir equation
Integrating from the free surface, h=0, to the weir crest,
h=H, gives the total theoretical discharge,
This is different for every differently shaped weir or notch.

Rectangular Weir

The width does not change with depth so

b = constant = B
Substituting this into the general weir equation gives

To get the actual discharge we introduce a coefficient of

discharge, Cd, to account for losses at the edges of the weir
and contractions in the area of flow,

V Notch Weir
The relationship between width and depth is

The width, b, a depth h from the free surface is

So discharge is

V Notch Weir
The actual discharge is obtained by introducing a coefficient
of discharge