Lec 3 Types of Bridges

Ethiopian civil service
university
Highway Engineering
II
Chapter two
Stress in pavements
Stress in pavements
2.1. Stress in flexible pavements
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass
2.1.2 Stress in a layered system
2.2 . Stress in rigid pavements

2.2.1 Stress due to vehicle loading
2.2.2 Stress due to curling
2.2.3 Stress due to friction
The response of a pavement structure to traffic

loading is mechanistically modeled by
computing stresses and strains within its layers.
Excessive stresses may cause fatigue cracking
and/or surface rutting , finally it may led both
structural and functional failure.
These failure distresses are minimized by use of
effective balanced pavement designs.
Pavement stress-strain analysis is constitutes an
integral part of pavement design and
performance evaluation.
3
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Contd)

Although pavement structures are
layered structures, we start with a

discussion of the stresses in a
homogeneous half space.
Originally Boussinesq developed his
equations for a point load but later on the
equations were extended for circular
wheel loads.
If the modulus ratio between the
pavement and the subgrade is close to
unity the Boussinesq theory can be
applied to determine the stresses, strains
4
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (contd)

The half space has an elastic modulus
E and a Poisson ratio v.
A small cylindrical element with a
center at a distance z below the
surface and r from the axis of
symmetry is shown.
Due to axisymmetry, there are only
three normal stresses, z, r, t, and
one shear stress, rz, which is equal to
zr. These stresses are functions of q,
r/a, and z/a.
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass(contd)

Figure 2-1
Homogeneous half space

subjected to a circular
load with a radius a and a
uniform pressure q.

Foster and Ahlvin has developed charts as
provided here from Figure 2-2 to Figure 2-6

(assuming the half space is incompressible
with a Poisson ratio of 0.5.) for determining
Vertical stress z,
Radial stress r,
Tangential stress t,
Shear stress rz, and
Vertical deflection w.
7
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass(contd)

Figure 2-2:
Vertical
stress due to
circular
loading (Foster
and Ahlvin,
1954)
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous

mass (contd )
Figure 2-3:
Radial stress
due to circular
loading
(Foster and
Ahlvin, 1954)

Figure 2-4: Tangential stress due to circular loading
(Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)
10

Figure 2-5:
Shear stress due
to circular loading
(Foster and
Ahlvin, 1954)
11

Figure 2-6:
Vertical
deflection due
to circular
loading
(Foster and
Ahlvin, 1954)
HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements
12

(contd)
After the stresses are obtained from charts, the
strains can be computed from
13

(contd)
If the contact area consists of two circles,

the stresses and strains can be computed
by superposition.
When the wheel load is applied over a
single contact area, the most critical
stress, strain, and deflection occur under
the center of the circular area on the axis
of symmetry, where rz=0 and t= r, so
z and t are the principal stresses.
Example 1
14

The stresses, strain, and deflection on the axis
of symmetry of a wheel load applied to a

pavement (similar to a load applied to flexible
plate) with radius a and a uniform pressure q,
can be computed by:
Eq 2.2
Eq 2.3
Eq 2.4
Eq 2.5
Eq 2.6
15
When v=0.5, the deflection equation is

simplified to:
Eq 2.7
On the surface of the loaded half space, z=0,

the deflection is
Eq 2.8
Example 2
16

(contd)
If the load is applied on a rigid plate such as

that used in plate loading test, the deflection
is the same at all points on the plate, but the
pressure distribution under the plate is not
Eq 2.9
uniform and is expressed as:
Where
r is the distance from the center point where the

pressure is to be determined and q is the average
pressure which is equal to the load divided by the
area.
17
Figure 27. Differences between flexible and rigid plates
18

The smallest pressure is at the center and equals
to one half of the average pressure. The pressure

at the edge is infinity. The deflection of the rigid
plate is given by:
Eq 2.10
All the above analysis is based on the assumption
that the flexible pavement is homogeneous,

isotropic and semi-infinite.
19

(contd)
With these assumptions, Bousinesq

theory has the following drawbacks:
Flexible
pavements are multilayered structures

with each layer having its own modulus of
elasticity.
The pavement layer and the subgrade soil are
not perfectly elastic.
The assumption that the load is uniformly
distributed may not be true.
Example 3
20
2.1.2 Stresses in Layered Systems
In actual case, flexible pavements are layered

systems with better materials on the top and
cannot be represented by a homogeneous mass.
Various multilayer theories for estimating
stresses and deflection have been proposed.
However, basic theories that utilize assumptions
close to actual conditions in flexible pavement
are those proposed by Burmister.
21
2.1.2 Stresses in Layered Systems(contd)

Burmister first developed solutions for two-layer
system and then extended them to a three-layer

system with the following assumptions:
Each layer is homogeneous, isotropic and
linearly elastic with elastic modulus E, and
Poissons ratio v.
The material is weightless and infinite in
lateral directions, but of finite depth, h,
whereas the underlying layer is infinite in both
the horizontal and vertical directions.
A uniform pressure q is applied on the surface
over a circular area of radius a.
22
2.1.2 Stresses in Layered

Systems(contd)
The layers are in continuous contact and
continuity conditions are satisfied at the layer

interfaces, as indicated by the same vertical
stresses, shear stresses, vertical displacement
and radial displacement.
For frictionless interface, the continuity of shear
stress and radial displacement is replaced by zero
shear stress at each side of the interface.
23
Two-Layer Systems (contd)

The exact case of a two layer system is the full
depth asphalt pavement construction in which a

thick layer of hot-mix asphalt is placed directly on
the subgrade.
If the pavement is composed of three layers (e.g.,
surface course, base course and subgrade) the stresses

and strains in the surface layer can be computed by
combining the base course and the subgrade into a
single layer.
Similarly the stresses and strains in the subgrade can
be computed by combining the surface course and the
base course.
24

Vertical Stress: - the stresses in a two layer
system depends on modulus ratio E1/E2 and the

thickness radius ratio h1/a.
Figure 2-8 shows the effect of pavement layer on
the distribution of vertical stress under the center
of the circular loaded area when h1/a = 1 and v =
0.5.
Figure 2-9 shows the effect of pavement thickness
and modulus ratio on vertical stresses, c, at the
pavement-subgrade interface.
25
Figure 2-8 shows the effect of pavement layer on
the distribution of vertical stress under the center

of the circular loaded area when h1/a = 1 and v =
0.5.
26

Figure 2-9 shows the effect of pavement thickness and
modulus ratio on vertical stresses, c, at the pavementsubgrade interface.
Example 4
27

Deflection: - Surface and interface deflection have
been used as criteria for pavement design.

Vertical surface deflection have been used as a
criterion of pavement design. The surface deflection
under a uniformly circular loaded area is given in
terms of the defection factor F2 (Figure 2-10) as:
Eq 2.11
F2 is a function of E1/E2 and h1/a, For homogeneous
half space with h1/a= 0, F2=1 and V = 0.5, and load

is applied on rigid plate so the equn for wo becomes:
Eq 2.12
28
Two-Layer Systems
(contd)
The interface deflection between the two
layers is also used as a criterion of pavement

design and expressed in terms of deflection factor
F (Figure 2-11 & 2-12) as:
Eq
2.13
29
Figure 2-10:
Vertical surface
defln factor for

two layer system.
(Burmister, 1943)
30

Figure 2-11:
Vertical
interface
deflection
factor for two
layer system,
E1/E2=10 and
E1/E2=25
(Haung, 1969)
31

Figure 2-12:
Vertical
interface
deflection
factor for two
layer system,
E1/E2=50 and
E1/E2=100.
(Haung, 1969)
Example 5 6
32

Critical tensile strain: - The tensile strains at
the bottom of the asphalt layer have been used as

design criteria to prevent fatigue cracking.
The critical strain at the bottom of the first layer
can be computed from strain factor Fe (Figure 2Eq
13) as:
2.14
The critical tensile strain under dual wheels or
dual-tandem wheels can be calculated from the

same equation by correcting the strain factor.
33

Figure 2-13: Strain
factor in two layer

systems for single
wheel. (Haung, 1973)
Example 7
34
Two-Layer Systems
(contd)
In most cases, the critical tensile strain occurs
under the center of the loaded area, where the

shear stress is zero . However, when both h1/a
and E1/E2 are small, the critical tensile strain
occurs at some distance from the center, as
the pre -dominant effect of the shear stress.
Under such situations, the principal tensile
strain is at the radial distances 0, 0.5a, a, and
1.5a from the center were computed, and the
critical value was obtained
35
Three-Layer Systems
The three layer systems can be conceived
as follows:
1. Top layer, representing all bituminous
layers taken together.
2. Middle layer, representing the
unbounded base and subbase courses
and
3. Third layer, representing the subgrade.
36
Three-Layer Systems (contd)

Figure 2-14
shows a threelayer system and

the stress at the
interfaces of the
axis of symmetry.
37

At the axis of symmetry, tangential and radial
stresses are identical, t= r, and shear stress is

equal to zero, = 0.
Jones has developed a series of tables for
determining stresses in a three layer system for the
following dimensionless parameters:
Eq
2.15
38

Parts of Joness table is presented in Table 2-1,
from which four sets of stress factors, ZZ1, ZZ2,

ZZ1-RR1, ZZ2-RR2, can be obtained. The product
of these factors and the contact pressure gives the
stresses as:
Eq
2.16
39
40
41
From the continuity of horizontal displacements

at the interfaces, r1 and r2 can be computed
from:
Eq
2.17
42

Once the stresses at the interface are calculated, strains
can be computed as:

For Vertical strains
of Layer 1}
Eq
{Bottom
2.18
Eq
2.19
{Top of
Layer 2}
For radial strains

Layer 1}
Example 8
Eq
2.20
{Bottom of
Eq
2.21
{Top of
Layer 2}
43
Stresses in
Rigid
Pavements
44
2.2. Stresses in Rigid

Pavements
The most important sources of stresses in

rigid pavements are:
Vehicle loads,
Changes in temperature of the slab, and
Friction between the slab and the subgrade
or base course.
These factors tend to result in deformations

of the concrete slab, which cause tensile,
compression, and flexural stresses of
varying magnitude.
45
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements

(contd)
The temperature and moisture gradients causes

Curling and the traffic loading cause Corner,
edge, and interior slab stresses.
Also the friction between slab and foundation

causes due to drying shrinkage, thermal heating
and cooling, and foundation movement.
46

Pavements (contd)
1. Stresses due to vehicle loading
Three methods can generally be used to
determine stresses and deflections in concrete

pavements due to vehicle loading:
Westergaards formulas
Influence charts
Finite element analysis
Westergaards formulas derived to examine
three condition of loading: corner loading,
interior loading and edge loading far away from
any corner are described.
47

(contd)
Westergaards assumptions
i.
The concrete slab acts as homogenous,
isotropic and elastic solid in equilibrium
ii. The reactions of the subgrade are vertical only
and they are proportional to the deflection of
the slab.
iii. The thickness of the concrete slab is uniform.
iv. The load at the interior and corner is
distributed uniformly over a circular contact
area and the circumference of the contact area
at the corner is tangent to the edge of the slab.
v. The edge loading is distributed uniformly over
a semi-circular area, the diameter of the semicircle being at the edge of the slab.
48

(contd)
Corner Loading: when a circular load is applied

near the corner of the concrete slab, the stress, c,
and the deflection, c, at the corner are given by:
Eq
2.23
Eq
2.22
Where P is the load,
k is the modulus of the subgrade reaction,

h is the thickness of the concrete slab,
a is the contact radius, and
l is the radius of relative stiffness defined as:
In which E is the modulus of elasticity of

concrete, v is Poisson ratio of concrete.
Example 9
Eq
2.24
49
Stresses in Rigid
Pavements
Fig 2.15. A slab subjected to corner

load
50

(contd)
The results obtained by applying the finite
element method of analysis are:

Eq
2.25
Eq
2.26
Where c is the side length of a square contact
area . If a load is applied over a circular area,

the value of c must be selected so that the
square and the circle have the same contact
area: so that c=1.772a.
51

Pavements (contd)
Modulus of subgrade reaction, k, is the constant
in a classic works rigid pavement and is defined

as:
Where p is the reactive pressure (determined by
means of plate loading test) and is the deflection

of the slab.
52

(contd)
Interior loading: The stress due to the
interior circular loading of radius a is given as:
Eq
2.27
In which l is the radius of relative stiffness and

Eq
2.28
The deflection due to interior loading is

Eq
2.29
Example 10
53
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (contd)

Edge loading: The stresses & deflection due to
edge loading as formulated by Westergaard are:

For circular contact area
Eq
2.30
Eq
2.31
For semicircular contact area
Eq
2.32
Example 11
54

(contd)
When a load is applied over a set of dual tyres, the
equation can be used after converting the contact

area of the dual tyres into a radius, a of equivalent
circular contact area as:
Eq
2.33
Where
Pd is the load on dual tyres
q is the contact pressure
Sd is the spacing of the tyres
Example 12
55
Curling stress
A change in temperature through the slab
causes differential expansion or contraction

between the top and bottom which results
curling of the slab upward and downward.
The weight of the slab restrains the slab from
curling upward and downward. Consequently,

stresses known as curling or wrapping
stresses develop in the slab.
During the day, when the temperature at the
top of the slab is greater than that of the

bottom, the top tends to expand with respect
56
Because the weight of the slab restrains the

downward curling, compressive and tensile
stresses are induced at the top and bottom of
the slab respectively.
At night, when the temperature at the top is
lower than that of the bottom of the slab, the
effect is reversed.
Fig 2.16
57

(contd)
Another explanation of curling stress can be

made in terms of the theory of a plate on a
Winkler, or liquid foundation. A Winkler
foundation is characterized by a series of
springs attached to the plate, as shown
in 2.17
FIGURE
Curling of slab due
Figure below
to temperature
gradient .
58

(contd)
Bending of Infinite Plate
The difference between a beam and a plate is
that the beam is stressed in only one direction,

the plate in two directions.
Hooks law:
Generalization of Hooks law
z
y
Fig
2.18
59

Pavements (contd)
For stresses in two directions, the strain in x

direction can be determined by the
generalized Hooke's law.
Eq
2.34
In which E is the elastic modulus of concrete.

The first term on the right side of the above
eqn indicates the strain in the x direction

caused by stress in the x direction ; the second
term indicates the strain in the x direction
Eq
caused by stress in the y direction
. Similarly,
2.35
60

(contd)
When the plate is bent in the x direction, y= 0, because the
plate is so wide and well restrained that no strain should ever
occur unless near the very edge. Setting the above Eqn. to 0
yields
Substituting these and solving for x gives
Eq
2.36
Eq
(the stress in the bending direction )
2.37
Eq
2.38
(The stress in the perpendicular direction of bending)
When bending occurs in both directions as in the case of
temperature curling, the stresses in both directions must be

superimposed.
61

(contd)
Let t represent differential between the top and
bottom of the slab and t represents the

coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete.
FIG 2.19
Temperature gradient
in concrete slab .
62

(contd)
If the slab is free to move and the temperature at
the top is greater than that at the bottom, the top

will expand by a strain of (t t /2) and the bottom
will contract by the same strain, as in Fig.
If the slab is completely restrained and prevented
from moving, compressive strain will result at the
top and a tensile strain at the bottom . The
maximum strain is
Eq
2.39
63

(contd)
Therefore the stress in the x direction due to

bending in the x direction and also the stress
in the y direction due to bending in the y
Eq
direction , is
2.40
The stress in the x direction due to bending in
the y direction is
Eq
2.41
The total stress is the sum of these two eqn:

Eq
2.42
64

(contd)
The preceding analysis is based on the
assumption that the temperature

distribution is linear throughout the depth
of the slab . This is an approximation,
because the actual temperature
distribution is nonlinear.
Curling Stresses in Finite Slab

(contd)
The fig shows below a finite slab with lengths Lx
in the x direction and Ly in the y direction .

Eq
2.43
Where Cx and Cy are correction factor for finite
slab in the x & y direction. Similarly, the stress in

the y direction is:
Eq
2.44
66

(contd)
Bradbury (1938) developed a simple chart for
determining Cx and Cy , as shown in Figure . The

correction factor Cx depends on Lx /l and Ly/l in
the respective directions.
Where l is the radius of relative stiffness,

Eq
defined as:
2.45
Where E is the modulus of elasticity of concrete, h
is the thickness of the slab, v is Poisson ratio of

concrete, and k is the modulus of subgrade reaction.
67
Fig 2.20
Stress
correction
factor for finite
slab
68

(contd)
In the above equations, the computed stresses
are the maximum interior stresses at the center

of the slab.
The edge stress at the mid span of the slab can
Eq
be determined from:
2.46
in which may be x or y depending on whether
C is Cx or Cy. Note that this Eqn is the same as

interior stress when the Poisson ratio at the edge
is taken as 0.
69

(contd)
Unless actual field measurements are made, it is
reasonable to assume a maximum gradient of

0.055oC/mm to 0.077oC/mm during the day and
about half values at night.
Stresses due to curling may be quite large and
cause concrete to crack when combined with
loading stresses. However, they are not usually
considered in the thickness design of pavement
slab.
Example 13
70

Pavements (contd)
Stresses due to Friction
The friction between a concrete slab and its
foundation causes tensile stress in the

concrete, in the steel reinforcements, if any
and in the tie bars. It is the criteria for
The spacing of plain concrete contraction
joints
Steel reinforcement for long spaced
concrete pavements
Fig. 2. 21
The number of tie bars required.
Arrangement of
Steel and joints in
rigid pavements
71

(contd)
The volume change caused by the variation of
temperature and moisture has two important

effects on concrete:
Induces tensile stresses and causes the
concrete to crack
Causes the joints to open and decrease the
efficiency of load transfer.
The figure on the next slide shows a concrete
pavement subjected to a decrease in temperature.
Due to symmetry, the slab tends to move from both
ends towards the center, but the subgrade prevents
it from moving; thus, frictional stresses are
developed between the slab and the subgrade.
72
The amount of friction depends on the relative movement,

being zero at the center where no movement occurs and
maximum at some distance from the center where the
movement is fully mobilized.
FIG 2.22
Stresses due to
friction
73
The tensile stress in concrete is greatest at the

center and can be determined by equating
frictional force per unit width of the slab to the
tensile stress as:Where:
c = stress in the concrete
c = unit weight of concrete
L = length of the slab
fa = average coefficient of
Eq
friction between the slab and
2.47
the subgrade, usually taken
1.5.
Example 14
74

Pavements (contd)
Joint Opening: The spacing of joints in plain
concrete pavement depends more on the

shrinkage characteristics of the concrete than
on the stress in the concrete.
Longer joint spacing causes the joint to open
wider and decreases the efficiency of load
transfer. The opening of the joint can be
Eq
determined approximately by:
2.48
Where
L = joint spacing caused by temperature change and
drying shrinkage of concrete,
t = coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete,
generally 9 to 10.8x10-6 / oC,
= drying shrinkage coefficient of concrete,
approximately 0.5 to 2.5x104
L = joint spacing or slab length,
75

Steel Stress:
Steel is used in concrete pavements as reinforcements, tie
bars, and dowel bars .The design of longitudinal and
transverse reinforcements and the tie bars across
longitudinal joints are determined based on the stresses
due to friction assuming that tensile stresses are taken by
steel alone.
Reinforcements: Wire fabric or bar mats are used to
increase the joint spacing and to tie the cracked concrete
together and maintain load transfer through aggregate
interlock, but not to increase the structural capacity of the
slab. but are used for two purposes : to increase the joint
spacing and to tie the cracked concrete together and
maintain load transfers through aggregate interlock.
76

The design of longitudinal and transverse
reinforcements are calculated by assuming that all

tensile stresses are taken by the steel alone, so ch
must be replaced by Asfs , Therefore :
width
Eq
Where
As = the area of steel required per
fs
2.49
= allowable stress in steel
The steel is usually placed at the mid depth and
Example 15 at joints. However, in actual practice

discontinued
the same amount of steel is used throughout the
77
Tie bars: are place along the longitudinal joint
to tie the two slabs together so that the joints

will be tightly closed and the load transfer
across the joints can be ensured.
The amount of steel required for the tie bars can
be determined as:
Eq
2.50
Where:
As = the area of steel required per length
L = the distance from the longitudinal joints to
the free
Example
16 edges where no bars exist.
78
Stresses in Rigid Pavements

For two or three-lane highways, L is the lane
width. If tie bars are used in all three longitudinal

joints of four-lane highways, L is equal to the lane
width for the outer joints and twice the lane width
for the inner joints.
The length of the tie bars is governed by the
allowable bond stress.
Where
t = length of the tie bar
fs = allowable steel stress
d = diameter of steel bar
Eq
= allowable bond stress
2.51
79

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Ethiopian civil service

2.2 . Stress in rigid pavements

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass

The response of a pavement structure to traffic

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Contd)

layered structures, we start with a

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (contd)

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass(contd)

Homogeneous half space

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (contd)

provided here from Figure 2-2 to Figure 2-6

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass(contd)

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (contd)

(Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (contd)

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (contd)

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass

strains can be computed from

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass

If the contact area consists of two circles,

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (contd)

of symmetry of a wheel load applied to a

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (contd)

When v=0.5, the deflection equation is

On the surface of the loaded half space, z=0,

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass

If the load is applied on a rigid plate such as

r is the distance from the center point where the

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (contd)

Figure 27. Differences between flexible and rigid plates

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (contd)

to one half of the average pressure. The pressure

All the above analysis is based on the assumption

that the flexible pavement is homogeneous,

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass

With these assumptions, Bousinesq

pavements are multilayered structures

2.1.2 Stresses in Layered Systems

In actual case, flexible pavements are layered

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

2.1.2 Stresses in Layered Systems(contd)

system and then extended them to a three-layer

2.1.2 Stresses in Layered

continuity conditions are satisfied at the layer

Two-Layer Systems (contd)

depth asphalt pavement construction in which a

surface course, base course and subgrade) the stresses

Two-Layer Systems (contd)

system depends on modulus ratio E1/E2 and the

Two-Layer Systems (contd)

Figure 2-8 shows the effect of pavement layer on

the distribution of vertical stress under the center

HIGHWAY II - Stress in Pavements

Two-Layer Systems (contd)

modulus ratio on vertical stresses, c, at the pavementsubgrade interface.

Two-Layer Systems (contd)

been used as criteria for pavement design.

F2 is a function of E1/E2 and h1/a, For homogeneous