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Chapter 6

Photodetectors

Content
Physical Principles of Photodiodes
pin, APD
Photodetectors characteristics (Quantum efficiency,
Responsivity, S/N)
Noise in Photodetector Circuits
Photodiode Response Time
Photodiodes structures

Photodetectors

These are Opto-electric devices i.e. to convert the


optical signal back into electrical impulses.

The light detectors are commonly made up of


semiconductor material.

When the light strikes the light detector, a


current is produced in the external circuit
proportional to the intensity of the incident light.

Photodetectors
Optical signal generally is weakened and distorted when it
emerges from the end of the fiber, the photodetector must
meet following strict performance requirements.
A high sensitivity to the emission wavelength range of the
received light signal
A minimum addition of noise to the signal
A fast response speed to handle the desired data rate
Be insensitive to temperature variations
Be compatible with the physical dimensions of the fiber
Have a Reasonable cost compared to other system components
Have a long operating lifetime

Photodetectors
Some important parameters while discussing photodetectors:
Quantum Efficiency
It is the ratio of primary electron-hole pairs created by incident
photon to the photon incident on the diode material.
Detector Responsivity
*This is the ratio of output current to input optical power.
Hence this is the efficiency of the device.
Spectral Response Range
This is the range of wavelengths over which the device
will operate.

Noise Characteristics
The level of noise produced in the device is critical to its
operation at low levels of input light.
Response Time
This is a measure of how quickly the detector can respond
to variations in the input light intensity.

Photodetectors

Types of Light Detectors

PN Photodiode

PIN Photodiode

Avalanche Photodiode

PIN photodiode

InGaAs avalanche photodiode

Photodetectors
Photodetector materials
Operating Wavelength Ranges for Several Different Photodetector Materials

InGaAs is used most commonly for both long-wavelength


pin and avalanche photodiodes

Photodetectors
Principle of the p-n junction Photodiode

Schematic diagram of a reverse biased pn junction photodiode

Photocurrent is dependent on number

SiO2
Electrode

AR

Electrode

coating
W

net

allow excess carriers in the sample to


and become collected by the
Netleave
space charge across the diode in

ph

of EHP and drift velocity.

The electrode do not inject carriers but

h +

h v > Eg

eN

Depletion
region

battery.

the depletion region. Nd and Na are the


donor and acceptor concentrations in

eN

the p and n sides.

The field in the depletion region

a
E

(x )

max

out

Principle of pn junction photodiode


(a) Reversed biased p+n
junction photodiode.
Annular electrode to allow
photon to enter the device.
Antireflection coating (Si3N4) to
reduce the reflection.
The p+-side thickness < 1 m.
(b) Net space charge
distribution, within SCL.
(c) The E field across depletion
region.
15

Photodetectors
Principle of the p-n junction Photodiode

A generic photodiode.

Photodetectors
Principle of the p-n junction Photodiode

Variation of photon flux with distance.

A physical diagram showing the depletion region.

A plot of the the flux as a function of distance.

There is a loss due to Fresnel reflection at the surface, followed by the


decaying exponential loss due to absorption.

The photon penetration depth x0 is defined as the depth at which the


-1
photon flux is reduced to e of its surface value.

Photodetectors
RAMOs
Theorem and External Photocurrent

An EHP is photogenerated at x = l. The electron and the hole drift in opposite directions with drift velocities vh
and ve.

The electron arrives at timeVtelectron = (L-l )/ve and the hole arrives at time thole = l/vh.
Iphoto(t)

e vh
L

e v h e ve

L
L
iphoto(t)

Semiconductor

h+

telectron

velectron

vhole

thole

L l

l
l

Area=Charge=e

t
0

e v h /L

e v e /L

x
h+

i(t)

ielectron(t)

telectron
thole

photocurrent

thole
ihole(t)
t

Photodetectors

RAMOs
Theorem and External Photocurrent

As the electron and hole drift, each generates ielectron(t) and ihole(t).

The total photocurrent is the sum of hole and electron photocurrents each lasting a duration th and
respectively.

te t

L l
ve

and

th t

l
vh

Transit time

Work done e E dx V ie t dt
ie t

e ve
; t te
L

ih t

e vh
; t th
L

te

th

te

Qcollected ie t dt ih t dt e

V
L

ve

dx
dt

Photocurrent

The collected charge is not 2e but just one


electron.

If a charge qis being drifted with a velocity vd(t) by a field between two biased electrodes separated
by L, the motion of q generates an external current
given by

e vd t
i (t )
; t t transit
L

Ramos Theorem

Photodetectors

Absorption Coefficient and Photodiode Materials


Absorbed Photon create Electron-Hole Pair.

1.24
g [ m]
E g [eV ]

Cut-off wavelength vs. Energy


bandgap

Incident photons become absorbed as they travel in the semiconductor and light intensity decays
exponentially with distance into the semiconductor.

I ( x ) I 0 e x

Absorption coefficient

The pin Photodiode


The pn junction photodiode has
two drawbacks:

Depletion layer capacitance is not


sufficiently small to allow
photodetection at high modulation
frequencies (RC time constant
limitation).
Narrow SCL (at most a few microns)
long wavelengths incident
photons are absorbed outside SCL
low QE
The pin photodiode can significantly
reduce these problems.
Intrinsic layer has less doping and wider region (5 50 m).

24

Photodetectors
Principle of the p-n junction Photodiode

Operation of a p-i-n photodiode.

(b) Energy band diagram under reverse bias.


(a) Cross-section view of a p-i-n photodiode.

(c) Carrier absorption characteristics.

Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode

Reverse-biased p-i-n photodiode

pin photodiode circuit

pin energy-band diagram

Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode

Schematic diagram of pin photodiode


In contrast to pn junction

SiO2

Electrode

E(x)

Electrode

p+

built-in-field is uniform

iSi

E0

n+

net
eN

h > Eg

+ e

x
Iph
eN a
Vr

Small depletion layer capacitance gives high modulation frequencies.


High Quantum efficiency.

Vout

Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode

A reverse biased pin photodiode is illuminated with a short wavelength photon that is absorbed very near the surface.

The photogenerated electron has to diffuse to the depletion region where it is swept into the i- layer and drifted across.

i Si

Diffusion

h > E

Drift

Vr

Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode
pindiode

(a)Thestructure;

(b)equilibriumenergybanddiagram;

(c)energybanddiagramunderreversebias.

Physical Principles of Photodiodes


The Pin Photodetector
The device structure consists of p and n semiconductor
regions separated by a very lightly n-doped intrinsic (i)
region.
In normal operation a reverse-bias voltage is applied across
the device so that no free electrons or holes exist in the
intrinsic region.
Incident photon having energy greater than or equal to the
bandgap energy of the semiconductor material, give up its
energy and excite an electron from the valence band to the
conduction band

pin Photodetector

The high electric field present in the depletion region causes photo-generated carriers to
Separate and be collected across the reverse biased junction. This give rise to a current
Flow in an external circuit, known as photocurrent.

The Pin Photodetector


Photocarriers:
Incident photon, generates free (mobile) electron-hole pairs
in the intrinsic region. These charge carriers are known as
photocarriers, since they are generated by a photon.
Photocurrent:
The electric field across the device causes the photocarriers
to be swept out of the intrinsic region, thereby giving rise to
a current flow in an external circuit. This current flow is
known as the photocurrent.

Energy-Band diagram for a pin photodiode

The Pin Photodetector


An incident photon is able to boost an electron to the
conduction band only if it has an energy that is greater than or
equal to the bandgap energy
**Beyond a certain wavelength, the light will not be
absorbed by the material since the wavelength of a photon
is inversely proportional to its energy
Thus, a particular semiconductor material can be used only
over a limited wavelength range.
The upper wavelength c cutoff is determined by the
band-gap energy Eg of the material.

As the charge carriers flow through the material some of


them recombine and disappear.
The charge carriers move a distance Ln or Lp for electrons
and holes before recombining. This distance is known as
diffusion length
The time it take to recombine is its life time n or p
respectively.
Ln = Dn n

and Lp = Dp p

Where Dn and Dp are the diffusion coefficients for


electrons and holes respectively.

Photo current
As a photon flux penetrates through the semiconductor, it will
be absorbed.
If Pin is the optical power falling on the photo detector at x=0
and P(x) is the power level at a distance x into the material
then the incremental change be given as

dP x s P x dx
where s() is the photon absorption coefficient at a
wavelength . So that

P x Pin exp s x

Photocurrent

Optical power absorbed, P(x) in the depletion region can be written in


terms of incident optical power, P0 :

P( x) Pin (1 e

s ( ) x

Absorption coefficient s ( ) strongly depends on wavelength. The upper


wavelength cutoff for any semiconductor can be determined by its energy
gap as follows:

1.24
c ( m )
E g (eV)

[6-1]

[6-2]

Taking entrance face reflectivity into consideration, the absorbed power in


the width of depletion region, w, becomes:

(1 R f ) P( w) Pin (1 e s ( ) w )(1 R f )

Optical Absorption Coefficient

Absorption Coefficient
Absorption
coefficient is a
material property.
Most of the
photon absorption
(63%) occurs over
a distance 1/ (it
is called
penetration
depth )

Photon energy (eV)


5 4

1108
Ge

1107

0.9

0.8

0.7

In0.7Ga0.3As0.64P0.36
In0.53Ga0.47As

Si
1106
GaAs

(m-1)

InP

1105
a-Si:H
1104

1103
0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Wavelength ( m)

Absorption43
coefficient ( ) vs. wavelength ( ) for various semiconductors
(Data selectively collected and combined from various sources.)

Photodetectors
Absorption
Coefficient and Photodiode Materials

Absorption

The indirect-gap materials are shown with a broken line.


Photon energy (eV)

5 4

0.9

0.8

0.7

1 10

Ge

1 10

1 10

In0.7Ga0.3As0.64P0.36

In0.53Ga0.47As

Si

-1
Absorption Coefficient (m )

GaAs
InP
1 10

a-Si:H

1 10

1 10
0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Wavelength (mm)

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Absorption Coefficient
Direct bandgap semiconductors
(GaAs, InAs, InP, GaSb, InGaAs,
GaAsSb), the photon absorption
does not require assistant from
lattice vibrations. The photon is
absorbed and the electron is
excited directly from the VB to CB
without a change in its k-vector
(crystal momentum k), since
photon momentum is very small.

k CB k VB

E
CB

Ec
Direct

Bandgap

Eg

Photon

Ev
VB

(a) GaAs (Direct bandgap)

(a) Photon absorption in a direct band


photon momentum in0an indirect bandgap semiconductor

1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentic

Absorption coefficient for direct bandgap semiconductors rise sharply with decreasing wavelength from g
(GaAs and InP).

46

Absorption Coefficient
E

Indirect bandgap
CB
semiconductors
(Si and Ge),
the photon absorption
Indirect Bandgap, E
Ec
CB
requires
from
lattice
Direct Bandgap assistant
Eg
Photon
Ec
Photon
E v (phonon). If K is
vibrations
Ev
wave vectorVB of lattice wave,
VB
Phonon
then
K represents the
k
k
k
k
momentum associated with
(a) GaAs (Direct bandgap)
(b) Si (Indirect bandgap)
lattice vibration K is a
phonon
momentum.

k
phonon momentum K
CB
VB
(a) Photon absorption in a direct bandgap semiconductor. (b) Photon absorption

in an indirect bandgap semiconductor (VB, valence band; CB, conduction band)

Thus the probability of photon absorption is not as high as in a direct transition and the g is not as sharp as
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
for direct bandgap semiconductors.

47

Photodetectors
Absorption Coefficient and Photodiode Materials

Photon absorption in

Photon absorption in

a direct bandgap semiconductor.

an indirect bandgap semiconductor

CB

Indirect Bandgap

EC
CB
Eg

Direct Bandgap

Photon

Eg

EC

EV

Photon
EV
VB
VB

Phonons
k

Responsivity

The primary photocurrent resulting from absorption is:

q
Ip
Pin (1 e s ( ) w )(1 R f )
h

[6-3]

Quantum Efficiency:

# of electron - hole photogenerated pairs


# of incident photons
IP / q

Pin / h

[6-4]

Responsivity:

IP
q

Pin
h

[A/W]

[6-5]

Responsivity vs. wavelength

Typical Silicon P-I-N Diode Schematic

Photodetectors

The pin Photodiode


Junction capacitance of pin

C dep

0 r A

Small capacitance: High modulation frequency

RCdep time constant is 50 psec.

Electric field of biased pin

Vr Vr
E E0

W W

Response time

t drift

vd

v d d E

The speed of pin photodiodes are invariably limited by the transit time of photogenerated carriers across the i-Si layer.

For i-Si layer of width 10 m, the drift time is about is about 0.1 nsec.

Photodetectors
The pin Photodiode
Drift velocity vs. electric field for holes and electrons in Silicon.

10

Electron

1
Driftvelocity(msec )

10

10

10

Hole

10

10

1
Electricfield(Vm )

10

10

Example
Bandgapandphotodetection
(a)Determinethemaximumvalueoftheenergygapwhichasemiconductor,usedasaphotoconductor,canhaveifitistobesensitivetoyellowlight
(600nm).
2
2
2
(b)Aphotodetectorwhoseareais510 cm isirradiatedwithyellowlightwhoseintensityis20mWcm .Assumingthateachphotongenerates
oneelectronholepair,calculatethenumberofpairsgeneratedpersecond.

Solution

(a)

(b)

Given,=600nm,weneedEph=h=Egsothat,
34
8
1
9
Eg=hc/ =(6.62610 Js)(310 ms )/(60010 m)=2.07eV

2 2
3
2
Area=510 cm andIlight=2010 W/cm .
Thereceivedpoweris
2 2
3
2
3
P=Area Ilight=(510 cm )(2010 W/cm )=10 W
Nph=numberofphotonsarrivingpersecond=P/Eph
3
19
=(10 W)/(2.0596021810 J/eV)

1
=2.9787 photonss
=2.9787 EHPs .

Example
BandgapandPhotodetection
(c)FromtheknownenergygapofthesemiconductorGaAs(Eg=1.42eV),calculatetheprimarywavelengthofphotonsemittedfromthiscrystalasa
resultofelectronholerecombination.Isthiswavelengthinthevisible?
(d)WillasiliconphotodetectorbesensitivetotheradiationfromaGaAslaser?Why?

Solution

(c)ForGaAs,Eg=1.42eVandthecorrespondingwavelengthis

=hc/Eg=(6.62610

34

8
1
19
Js)(310 ms )(1.42eV610 J/eV)

=873nm(invisibleIR)
ThewavelengthofemittedradiationduetoEHPrecombinationis873nm.

(d)

ForSi,Eg=1.1eVandthecorrespondingcutoffwavelengthis,
g=hc/Eg=(6.62610

34

8
1
19
Js)(310 ms )(1.1eV610 J/eV)

=1120nm
Sincethe873nmwavelengthisshorterthanthecutoffwavelengthof1120nm,theSiphotodetectorcandetectthe873nmradiation(Put
differently,thephotonenergycorrespondingto873nm,1.42eV,islargerthantheEg,1.1eV,ofSiwhichmeanthattheSiphotodetectorcan
indeeddetectthe873nmradiation)

Example
Absorption coefficient
(a)

If d is the thickness of a photodetector material, Io is the intensity of the incoming radiation, the number of photons absorbed per unit volume of
sample is

n ph

I 0 1 exp( d )
d h

Solution

(a)IfI0istheintensityofincomingradiation(energyflowingperunitareapersecond),I0exp( d)isthetransmittedintensitythroughthe
specimenwiththicknessdandthusI0exp( d)istheabsorbedintensity

Example
(b) What is the thickness of a Ge and In0.53Ga0.47As crystal layer that is needed for absorbing 90% of the incident radiation at 1.5 m?

5 1
ForGe, 5.2 10 m at1.5 mincidentradiation.
5 1
ForIn0.53Ga0.47As, 7.5 10 m at1.5 mincidentradiation.

(b)

5 1
ForGe, 5.2 10 m at1.5 mincidentradiation.

1 exp( d ) 0.9
1
1
1
1

6
d ln
ln

4
.
428

10
m 4.428 m

5
1 0.9 5.2 10 1 0.9

5 1
ForIn0.53Ga0.47As, 7.5 10 m at1.5 mincidentradiation.

1
1

6
ln

3
.
07

10
m 3.07 m

5
7.5 10 1 0.9

Example

InGaAspinPhotodiodes
ConsideracommercialInGaAspinphotodiodewhoseresponsivityisshowninfig.Itsdarkcurrentis5nA.

Whatopticalpoweratawavelengthof1.55mwouldgiveaphotocurrentthatistwicethedarkcurrent?WhatistheQEofthe
photodetectorat1.55m?

Whatwouldbethephotocurrentiftheincidentpowerinawasat1.3m?WhatistheQEat1.3moperation?

Responsivity(A/W)
1
0.8
0.6

0.4
0.2
0
800

1000

1200

1400

Wavelength(nm)

1600

1800

The responsivity of an InGaAs pin photodiode

Solution

(a)

6
At =1.5510 m,fromtheresponsivityvs.wavelengthcurvewehaveR0.87A/W.Fromthedefinitionof
responsivity,

I ph
Photocurrent ( A)
R

Incident Optical Power (W ) P0


wehave

2 I dark 2 5 10 9 ( A)
P0

11.5 nW
R
R
0.87 A / W )
I ph

Fromthedefinitionsofquantumefficiencyandresponsivity,

e
e

h
hc

hcR (6.62 10 34 J sec)(3 108 m / s )(0.87 A / W )

0.70 (70 %)
19
6
e
(1.6 10 coul )(1.55 10 m )
1
1
1
1
Notethefollowingdimensionalidentities:A=Cs andW=Js sothatAW =CJ .Thus,responsivityintermsofphotocurrentperunitincident
opticalpowerisalsochargecollectedperunitincidentenergy.

Solution

(b)

6
At =1.310 m,fromtheresponsivityvs.wavelengthcurve,R =0.82A/W.

SincePoisthesameand11.5nWasin(a),

I ph R P0 (0.82 A / W )(1.15 nW ) 9.43 nA

TheQEat =1.3mis

hcR (6.62 10 34 J sec)( 3 108 m / s )(0.82 A / W )

0.78 (78 %)
19
6
e
(1.6 10 coul )(1.3 10 m )

The Pin Photodetector


Generic Operating Parameters of an InGaAs
pin Photodiode

Photodetectors
Avalanche Photodiode (APD)

Schematic diagram of typical Si APD.

Electrode

SiO2

Antireflectioncoating

n
p

Avalanchebreakdown

Substrate

Substrate

Electrode

Electrode

Si APD structure without a guard ring

Guardring

More practical Si APD

Breakdown voltage around periphery is higher and avalanche is


+
confined more to illuminated region (n p junction).

Avalanche Photodiode (APD)


APDs internally multiply the
primary photocurrent before it
enters to following circuitry.
In order to carrier multiplication
take place, the photogenerated
carriers must traverse along a
high field region. In this region,
photogenerated electrons and
holes gain enough energy to
ionize bound electrons in VB
upon colliding with them. This
multiplication is known as
impact ionization. The newly
created carriers in the presence of
high electric field result in more
ionization called avalanche
effect.

Optical radiation
Reach-Through APD structure (RAPD)
showing the electric fields in depletion
region and multiplication region.

Photodetectors
Avalanche Photodiode (APD)

Iphoto

SiO2

Electrode

h > Eg

h+

n+ p

Impact ionization processes resulting avalanche multiplication

p+

Electrode

net

Avalancheregion

E c
E v

E ( x)

x
Absorption
region

Avalanche region

Impact of an energetic electron's kinetic energy excites VB electron to the CV.

Avalanche Photodiodes
Ionization rate
The average number of electron-hole pairs created by a carrier
per unit distance traveled is called the ionization rate.
Most materials exhibit different electron ionization rates and
hole ionization rates .

The ratio k = / of the two ionization rates is a


measure of the photodetector performance.

Only silicon has a significant difference between electron and


hole ionization rates.

Responsivity of APD

The multiplication factor (current gain) M for all carriers generated in the
photodiode is defined as:

IM
M
Ip

[6-6]

Where I M is the average value of the total multiplied output current & I P
is the primary photocurrent.

The responsivity of APD can be calculated by considering the current gain


as:

APD

M 0 M
h

[6-7]

Current gain (M) vs. Voltage for different optical


wavelengths

Generic Operating Parameters of an InGaAs Avalanche


Photodiode

Photodetector Noise & S/N

Detection of weak optical signal requires that the photodetector and its
following amplification circuitry be optimized for a desired signal-to-noise
ratio.
It is the noise current which determines the minimum optical power level
that can be detected. This minimum detectable optical power defines the
sensitivity of photodetector. That is the optical power that generates a
photocurrent with the amplitude equal to that of the total noise current
(S/N=1)

S
signal power from photocurrent

N photodetector noise power amplifier noise power

Signal Calculation

Consider the modulated optical power signal P(t) falls on the photodetector
with the form of:

P (t ) P0 [1 ms (t )]

Where s(t) is message electrical signal and m is modulation index.


Therefore the primary photocurrent is (for pin photodiode M=1):

MP(t ) I P [DC value] i p (t )[AC current ]


h

i ph

[6-8]

[6-9]

The root mean square signal current is then:

is

ip

ip M 2 s
2

m 2 I P2

2
[6-9]

For sinusoidal variation of


modulation index m
[6-10]

Noise Sources in Photodetecors


The principal noises associated with photodetectors are :
1- Quantum (Shot) noise: arises from statistical nature of the production
and collection of photo-generated electrons upon optical illumination. It has
been shown that the statistics follow a Poisson process.
2- Dark current noise: is the current that continues to flow through the
bias circuit in the absence of the light. This is the combination of
i) bulk dark current, which is due to thermally generated electrons and
holes in the pn junction, and the
ii) surface dark current, due to surface defects, bias voltage and surface
area.
Surface dark current is also known as surface leakage current. It depends
on surface defects, cleanliness, bias voltage and surface area. The surface
current can be reduced by using the guard rings so that the surface current
should not be allowed to flow through the load resistor
In order to calculate the total noise present in photodetector, we should sum
up the root mean square of each noise current by assuming that those are
uncorrelated.
Total photodetector noise current=quantum noise current +bulk dark
current noise + surface current noise

Noise calculation (1)

Quantum noise current (lower limit on the sensitivity):

ishot shot 2qI P BM F ( M )


2

B: Bandwidth, F(M) is the noise figure and generally is F ( M ) M

Bulk dark current noise:

i DB

Surface dark current noise:

i DS

0 x 1.0

2
DB
2qI D BM 2 F ( M )

[6-12]

Note that for pin photodiode

I D is bulk dark current

[6-11]

IL

M 2 F (M ) 1

is the surface leakage current.

2
DS
2qI L B

[6-13]

Noise calculation (2)


Since the dark current and the signal current are totally uncorrelated so the
total rms photodetector noise current is:

iN

N iQ

i DB

i DS

2q ( I P I D ) BM 2 F ( M ) 2qI L B

[6-14]

The thermal noise of amplifier connected to the photodetector is:


[Assumption: amplifier input impedance is much greater than the load
resistor]

iT

4k BTB

RL

[6-15]

RL input resistance of amplifier, and k B 1.38 10 23 JK -1is Boltzmann cte.

S/N Calculation

Having obtained the signal and total noise, the signal-to-noise-ratio can be
written as:
2

iP M 2

N 2q( I P I D ) BM 2 F ( M ) 2qI L B 4k B TB / RL

[6-16]

Since the noise figure F(M) increases with M, there always exists an
optimum value of M that maximizes the S/N. For sinusoidally modulated
x
signal with m=1 and F ( M ) M :

x2
opt

2qI L 4k B T / R L

xq ( I P I D )

[6-17]

Assignment
Determine the expression in the last
equation from S/N ratio by differentiating
6.16 w.r.t. M and equating it equal to zero.

Detector Response Time


The response time of photodiode together with its
output circuit depends mainly on the following
three factors:

1.The transit time of the photocarriers in


the depletion region.
2.The diffusion time of the photocarriers
generated outside the depletion region.
3.The RC time constant of the photodiode
and its associated circuit.

Reverse-biased pin photodiode

Schematic representation of a reversed biased pin photodiode

Depletion Layer Photocurrent

To understand the frequency response of the photodiodes,consider the fig.


wherein Light enters the device through p layer,and produces electron-hole
pairs as it is absorbed in the semiconducting material.
Those electron-hole pairs that are generated in the depletion region or within
the diffusion length of it will be separated by the reverse bias voltage
induced electric field, leading to a current flow in the external circuit.
Under steady state, the total current flowing through the depletion layer is
Jtotal = Jdr + Jdiff
where,Jdr is the drift current arising from the carriers generated inside the
depletion region and Jdiff is the diffusion current density due to the carriers
generated outside the depletion region (in n or p side) and diffuses into the
reverse bias region. The drift current density is(A=Area of the Photodiode)

A
P 1 R

J dr
o

Ip

q o 1 e

in

s w

Ah

Where o is the incident photon flux per unit area

Depletion Layer Photocurrent


The surface p layer of a pin photodiode is normally
very thin. The diffusion current is mainly due to the
holes diffusion from bulk n region. The hole diffusion
in the material can be determined by the one
dimensional diffusion equation

2 pn pn pno
Dp

G x 0
2
x
p
Where Dp is the hole diffusion constant, pn is the hole
concentration in the n-type material, p is the excess
hole life time, pno is the equilibrium hole density, and
G(x) is the electron-hole generation rate.

Depletion Layer Photocurrent


Diffusion current:
Solving the diffusion equation using the electron hole generation rate

G ( x) o s e s x

The diffusion current density is given as [Assignment: problem 6.10]

J diff

s L p s x
Dp
q o
e
qpno
1 s Lp
Lp

The total current density can be written as

J tot

Dp
e s x
q o 1
qpno
1 s L p
Lp

Detector Response Time

Detector Response Time


The response time of photodiode together with its
output circuit depends mainly on the following
three factors:

1.The transit time of the photocarriers in


the depletion region.
2.The diffusion time of the photocarriers
generated outside the depletion region.
3.The RC time constant of the photodiode
and its associated circuit.

Photodetector Response Time

The response time of a photo detector with its output circuit depends
mainly on the following three factors:
1- The transit time of the photo carriers in the depletion region. The transit
time t d depends on the carrier drift velocity v d and the depletion layer
width w, and is given by:
w

td

vd

[6-18]

2- Diffusion time of photocarriers outside depletion region.


3- RC time constant of the circuit. The circuit after the photodetector acts
like RC low pass filter with a passband given by:

1
B
2RT CT
RT Rs || RL and CT C a C d

[6-19]

Detector Response Time


The photodiode parameters responsible for these three factors
(transient time, diffusion time, RC time constant) are:
1. Absorption coefficient
2. Depletion region width
3. Photodiode junction and package capacitance
4. Amplifier capacitance
5. Detector load resistor
6. Amplifier input resistance
7. Photodiode series resistance

Detector Response Time

The diffusion processes are slow compared with the


drift of carriers in the high field region.
To have a high speed photodiode:
Photocarriers should be generated in the depletion
region or close to the depletion region.
Diffusion times should be less than or equal to the
carrier drift times.
The effect of long diffusion times can be seen by
considering the photodiode response time.

Detector Response Time


Response time is described by the rise time and the fall time
of the detector output when the detector is illuminated by the
step input of optical radiation.
The rise time is typically measured from the 10 to 90 percent
points of the leading edge of the output pulse.
For Fully depleted photodiodes the rise time and the fall time
are generally the same. They can be different at low bias
levels where the photodiode is not fully depleted.

Fast carriers
Charge carriers produced in the depletion region are separated
and collected quickly.

Slow carriers
Electron hole pairs generated in the n and p regions must
slowly diffuse to the depletion region before they can be
separated and collected.

Photodiode response to optical pulse

Typical response time of the


photodiode that is not fully depleted

Various optical responses of photodetectors:


Trade-off between quantum efficiency & response time

To achieve a high quantum efficiency, the depletion layer width must be


larger than 1 / s (the inverse of the absorption coefficient), so that most
of the light will be absorbed. At the same time with large width, the
capacitance is small and RC time constant getting smaller, leading to
faster response, but wide width results in larger transit time in the
depletion region. Therefore there is a trade-off between width and QE. It
is shown that the best is: 1 / s w 2 / s

Structures for InGaAs APDs

Separate-absorption-and multiplication (SAM) APD


light
substrate
buffer layer
INGaAs Absorption layer

multiplication layer
Metal contact

InGaAs APD superlattice structure (The multiplication region is composed


of several layers of InAlGaAs quantum wells separated by InAlAs barrier
layers.

Photodetectors
Heterojunction Photodiode
Separate Absorption and Multiplication (SAM) APD
InGaAs-InP heterostructure Separate Absorption and Multiplication APD

Electrode

InP

InP

p h

R
InGaAs

E
P +

P and N refer to p- and ntype wider-bandgap


semiconductor.

E (x )

n+

Avalanche

Absorption

region

region
x

out

Photodetectors
Heterojunction Photodiode
Separate Absorption and Multiplication (SAM) APD

E
c

(a) Energy

InP

band diagram for a SAM

heterojunction APD where there is a


E

E
v

valence band step Ev from InGaAs to

InGaAs

InP that slows hole entry into the InP

layer.
InP

InGaAsPgradinglayer

(b) An
InGaAs

interposing grading layer (InGaAsP)

with an intermediate bandgap breaks


Ev and makes it easier for the hole to

Photogeneratedelectronconcentration
exp(

x )attime

t =0

v
de

x
B

h > E

E
g

h +

ph

Temperature effect on avalanche gain

Comparison of photodetectors

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