Chapter 2

Stress and Strain

-- Axial Loading

Statics deals with undeformable bodies (Rigid bodies)

Mechanics of Materials deals with deformable bodies
-- Need to know the deformation of a boy under
various stress/strain state
-- Allowing us to computer forces for statically
indeterminate problems.

The following subjects will be discussed:

Stress-Strain Diagrams
Modulus of Elasticity
Brittle vs Ductile Fracture
Elastic vs Plastic Deformation
Bulk Modulus and Modulus of Rigidity
Isotropic vs Orthotropic Properties
Stress Concentrations
Residual Stresses

2.2 Normal Strain under Axial Loading

normal strain
L
For variable cross-sectional area A,
strain at Point Q is:

d
lim

x 0 x
dx
The normal Strain is dimensionless.

2.3 Stress-Strain Diagram

Ductile Fracture

Brittle Fracture

Some Important Concepts and Terminology:

1. Elastic Modulus
2. Yield Strength lower and upper Y.S. -- y
0.2% Yield Strength
3. Ultimate Strength, ut
4. Breaking Strength or Fracture Strength
5. Necking
6. Reduction in Area
7. Toughness the area under the -
8. Percent Elongation
9. Proportional Limit

curve

2.3 Stress-Strain Diagram

LB Lo
Percent elongation = 100%
Lo
A0 AB
Percent reduction in area = 100%
Ao

2.4 True Stress and True Strain

Eng. Stress = P/Ao
Ao = original area
Eng. Strain =

Lo

Lo = original length

dL
L
t
ln
Lo L
Lo

True Stress = P/A

A = instantaneous area

True Strain =

t ( L / L)

L = instantaneous length

(2.3)

2.5 Hooke's Law: Modulus of Elasticity

(2.4)

Where E = modulus of elasticity or Youngs

modulusproperties do not vary with

Isotropic = material

Anisotropic = material properties vary with direction or

direction or orientation.
E.g.:
metals E.g.: wood, composites
orientation.

2.6 Elastic Versus Plastic Behavior of a Material

Some Important Concepts:

1. Recoverable Strain
2. Permanent Strain Plastic Strain
3. Creep
4. Bauschinger Effect:

the early yielding behavior in the

compressive loading

2.7 Repeated Loadings: Fatigue

Fatigue failure generally occurs at a stress level that is much
lower than y
The -N curve = stress vs life curve
The Endurance Limit = the stress for which fatigue failure
does not occur.

2.8 Deformations of Members under Axial Loading

AE

L
PL

AE

Pi Li
AE
i i

(2.4)
(2.5)

(2.6)

(For Homogeneous rods)

(For various-section rods)

Pdx
d dx
AE
P

(For variable cross-section rods)

B/ A

Pdx
AE

PL
B A
AE

(2.9)

(2.10)

2.9 Statically Indeterminate Problems

A. Statically Determinate Problems:
-- Problems that can be solved by Statics, i.e. F = 0
and M = 0 & the FBD
B. Statically Indeterminate Problems:
-- Problems that cannot be solved by Statics
-- The number of unknowns > the number of equations
-- Must involve deformation

Example 2.02:

Example 2.02

1 2

Superposition Method for Statically

Indeterminate Problems
1. Designate one support as redundant support
2. Remove the support from the structure & treat it as
an unknown load.
3. Superpose the displacement
Example 2.04

Example 2.04

 L R 0

2.10

Problems Involving Temperature Changes

T ( T ) L

2(.21)

= coefficient of thermal
expansion
T + P = 0

T T

T ( T ) L
P

PL

AE

PL
T P ( T ) L
0
AE

Therefore:

P AE ( T )

P
E ( T )
A

2.11 Poisson 's Ratio

x x / E
lateral strain
Poisson ' s Ratio
axial strain

y
z

x
x

E
y

2.12 Multiaxial Loading: Generalized Hooke's Law

Cubic rectangular parallelepiped

Principle of Superposition:
-- The combined effect = (individual effect)
Binding assumptions:
1. Each effect is linear
2. The deformation is small and does not
change
the overall condition of the body.

2.12 Multiaxial Loading: Generalized Hooke's Law

Generalized Hookes Law

x y z
x

E
E
E
x y z
y

E
E
E
x y z
z

E
E
E

(2.28)

Homogeneous Material -- has identical properties at all points.

Isotropic Material -- material properties do not vary with direction
or orientation.

2.13 Dilation: Bulk Modulus

Original volume = 1 x 1 x 1 = 1
Under the multiaxial stress: x, y,
z

(1 x )(1 y )(1 z )

The new volume =

Neglecting the high order terms yields:

1 x y z
e the hange of olume 1 1 x y z 1
e x y z

( 2.30)

e = dilation = volume strain = change in volume/unit volume

Eq. (2.28) Eq. (230)

X y z
2 ( X y z )
e

E
E

(2.31)

1 2
e
( X y z )
E
Special case: hydrostatic pressure -- x, y, z = p
e

3(1 2 )
p
E

p
e

Define:

E
3(1 2 )

(2.33)

(2.33)

= bulk modulus = modulus of compression

3(1 2 )

Since = positive,

1>2

(1 - 2) > 0

<

Therefore, 0 < <

= 0

3
e
p
E

3(1 2 )
e
p
E

-- Perfectly incompressible materials

e0

2.14 Shearing Strain

If shear stresses are present

Shear Strain =

xy

(In radians)

xy G xy

yz G yz zx G zx

(2.36)
(2.37)

The Generalized Hookes Law:

X y z
x

E
E
E
X y z
y

E
E
E
X y z
z

E
E
E
xy

xy

yz

yz

zx

zx

2.18 Further Discussion of Deformation under Axial Loading:

Relation Among E, , and G

E
1
2G
E
G
2(1 )

Saint-Venants Principle:
-- the localized effects caused by any load acting on the
body will dissipate or smooth out within region
that are sufficiently removed form the location of
he load.

2.16 Stress-Strain Relationships for Fiber-Reinforced

Composite Materials
-- orthotropic materials

y
xy
x

z
and xz
x

X xy y zx z
x

Ex
Ey
Ez
xy X y zx z
y

Ex
Ey
Ez
xy X yz y z
z

Ex
Ey
Ez

 xy yx yz zy zx xz

E x E y E y Ez Ez E x

xy

xy
yz
zx

yz
zx
G
G
G

2.17 Stress and Strain Distribution Under Axial Loading:

Saint-Venant's Principle
If the stress distribution is uniform:

y ( y )ave

In reality:

2.18 Stress Concentrations

-- Stress raiser at locations where geometric discontinuity occurs

max
K
ave

= Stress Concentration Factor

2.19 Plastic Deformation

Elastic Deformation Plastic Deformation

Elastoplastic behavior

Rupture

For max < Y

max
ave

ave

P ave A

max A
K

For max = Y
PY

Y A
K

For ave = Y

PU Y A
PY

PU
K

max
K

2.20 Residual Stresses

After the applied load is removed, some
stresses may still remain inside the material
Residual Stresses