MEM603 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY & HEALTH

Chapter 3.0 Occupational Health (4 hours)

3.1IntroductiontoIndustrialHygiene
3.2ChemicalSafetyManagement
3.3IndoorAirQuality
3.4WorkinginConfinedSpace

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL

HYGIENE OR OCCUPATIONAL HYGIENE

What is Occupational Hygiene?

TheInternationalOccupationalHygieneAssociation(IOHA)
definesOccupationalHygieneas:
'Thedisciplineofanticipating,recognizing,evaluating
andcontrollinghealthhazardsintheworkingenvironment
withtheobjectiveofprotectingworkerhealthandwellbeingandsafeguardingthecommunityatlarge.'

HEALTH HAZARDS
Chemical agents

Gases,vapours,solids,fibres,liquids,
dusts,mists,fumes,etc.

Physical agents

Noiseandvibration
Heatandcold
Electromagneticfields,lightingetc.

Biological agents

Bacteria,fungi,etc.

Ergonomic factors

Lifting,stretching,andrepetitivemotion

Psychosocial factors

Stress,workloadandworkorganisation

ANTICIPATING AND RECOGNIZING

ANTICIPATIONthisinvolvesidentifyingpotentialhazards
intheworkplacebeforetheyareintroduced.
RECOGNITION -thisinvolvesidentifyingthepotential
hazardthatachemical,physicalorbiologicalagent-oran
adverseergonomicsituation-posestohealth.

EVALUATION
EVALUATIONoftheextentofexposuretothechemicalhazards,
physicalorbiologicalagents(oradverseergonomicsituation)inthe
workplace.Thisofteninvolvesmeasurementofthepersonal
exposureofaworkertothehazard/agentintheworkplace,
particularlyattherelevantinterfacebetweentheenvironmentand
thebody,e.g.breathingzone,hearingzone,andassessmentofthe
dataintermsofrecommendedoccupationalexposurelimits(OELs),
wheresuchcriteriaexist.

CONTROL
CONTROLofthechemical,physicalorbiological
agent-oradverseergonomicsituation,by
procedural,engineeringorothermeanswherethe
evaluationindicatesthatthisisnecessary.

What is Occupational Hygiene?

WorkActivity

Exposure

Occupational
Hygiene
Occupational
Health

Disease

Occupational
Medicine

HistoryofOccupationalHygiene
Ca400BCHippocratesin
ancientGreecefirstnotedillness
inmercurysulphideworkers.

History of Occupational Hygiene

Ca1540ParacelsusinAustria
describedlungdiseasesin
mineworkers

History of Occupational Hygiene

1700Ramazzini,thefatherofindustrial
medicine,andProfessorofMedicineinPadua,
wroteDeMorbisArtificumDiatriba,thefirst
formalstudyofindustrialdiseases.
ItwashewhoaddedanadditiontoHippocrates
listofquestionstopatientswhentakinga
history,namelywhatisyouroccupation?

History of Occupational Hygiene

TheIndustrialrevolutionfromthelate1700sthroughtothe
late1800sledtoincreasedurbanisationand
industrialisation.PictureofManchesterUK.

History of Occupational Hygiene

1858JohnStenhouseintroducesacharcoal
impregnatedmasktocontrolexposuretogases
andvapours.

History of Occupational Hygiene

1889-ExposurelimitsaresetforhumidityandcarbondioxideincottonmillsintheUK.

History of Occupational Hygiene

1890s-HaldaneundertakesworkonthetoxicityofCarbon
Monoxidebyexposingratsmiceandevenhimselftovarying
concentrationswithinanexposurechamber.

Heusedtheseresultstodevelop
dosevtimeplotsforseverityand
discomfortofhealtheffects.

Heintroducestheuseofsmall
animalsandinparticularCanaries
asthefirstwayofmonitoringtogive
anindicationofthelevelsoftoxic
gas.

History of Occupational Hygiene

1910AliceHamiltonworksin
theUSasthefirstIndustrial
toxicologistpioneeringthe
fieldoftoxicologyand
occupationalhygiene.

History of Occupational Hygiene

1917-Duringthefirstworldwar,theurgencyoftheworkinmunitionsfactoriesled
topoorworkingconditions.

TheworkoftheHealthofMunitionsWorkersCommitteelaidthe groundformany
subsequentpracticesinergonomics,psychology,welfareandshift-workregimes.

History of Occupational Hygiene

1920s-30s - Industrial hygiene develops and grows in the USA in both the
PublicHealthService(PHS)andlargeprivatecompanies.Thesedevelopments
laythefoundationsforthecreationoftwoprofessionalorganisations.

1938/9 - The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygiene

(ACGIH) and the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) were
formed. The first independent professional organisations for
industrial/occupational hygienists . IH numbers in USA grow rapidly during
WWIItoassistthewareffort.

1953-BritishOccupationalHygieneSociety(BOHS)founded.Societystarts
publishingAnnalsofOccupationalHygienein1958.

1960s - Sherwood and Greenhalgh document the development of the first

personal sampling pump and sampling head; the first comparison between
personalsamplingandstaticsamplingandthefirstobservationofthepossible
effectofpersonalsamplingontheindividualbeingsampled.

History of Occupational Hygiene

1970s - Occupational Safety and Health Act in the USA and the Health
and Safety at Work Act in the UK lay the path for Risk Assessment /
performancebasedlegislation.

1980/90s-ThepracticeofoccupationalhygienegrowswidelyintheUSA,
UK, The Netherlands and Australia with legislation in these countries
beingintroducedspecificallytofocusonchemicalandphysicalhazards.

2000s - The societies of 25 different countries are members of the

InternationalOccupationalHygieneAssociation(IOHA).
Industrialisation in countries such as China and India increase the
needforOccupationalhygiene.
Thedevelopmentofmodellingtechniquesforassessingexposure.

The Importance of Occupational Hygiene

TheWorldHealthOrganisationestimates
thatgloballythereare:
2,000,000work-relateddeathsperyear.
386,000deathseachyearfromexposureto
airborneparticulates.
152,000deathsperyearfromcarcinogensin
theworkplace.
37%ofLowerBackPainisattributedto
occupation.

The Importance of Occupational Hygiene

Thatmeansapproximately228peoplehave
diedfromworkrelatedinjuryorillhealthsince
westartedanhourago.

Hygiene Standards or Occupational

Exposure Limits (OELs)

Theyarenotanindexoftoxicity
Theydonotrepresentafinedemarcationbetweengoodandbadpractice.
Theyarebasedonthecurrentbestavailableinformationandareliableto
change.
Ifthereisnotahygienestandardsetforachemicalsubstance,itdoesnot
meanthatsubstanceissafe.
Goodoccupationalhygienepracticeistokeepairbornecontaminantstoas
lowalevelaspossible,nottojustbelowtherelevanthygienestandard(s).
Theyapplytooccupationalexposureofadults.Theyarenotapplicableto
environmentalexposurewheremoresusceptiblegroupsexiste.g.pregnant
women,children,infirm.
Forchemicalstheygenerallyrelatetoairborneconcentrationsi.e.theyonly
takeintoaccounttheinhalationrouteofentry.
Theygenerallyrefertosinglesubstances,althoughsomeguidancemaybe
givenonmixedexposures.

Setting of Hygiene Standards

and Exposure Limits
Therearethreemaintypesofhygienestandards: Chemical agentssuchasgases,vapours,fumes,
mists,dustsandaerosols.
Physical agentssuchasnoise,vibration,heat,cold
andradiation(ionisingandnonionising)
Biologicalexposureindices.

Setting of Hygiene Standards

and Exposure Limits
Whensettinghygienestandardsforhazardousagents,theeffects
theagentsmighthaveonthebodyhavetobeconsidered
namely: Contact
Localtoxiceffectsatthesiteofcontact(skin,eye,respiratorytractetc.)
Absorption
Transport,Metabolism,Storage
Systemictoxiceffects,remotefromthesiteofcontact(anyorgansysteme.g.
blood,bone,nervoussystem,kidneyetc.)
Excretion
Acutetoxicityi.e.theadverseeffectsoccurwithinashorttimeofexposuretoa
singledose,ortomultipledosesover24hoursorlesse.g.irritation,
asphyxiation,narcosis
Chronictoxicity.

Setting of Hygiene Standards and

Exposure Limits
Thedataforsettinghygienestandardsincludestheuseof:
Animalstudies
Humanresearchandexperience
Epidemiology(thestatisticalstudyofdiseasepatterns
ingroupsofindividuals)
Analogy.

Hygiene Standards for Chemical

Agents
Onlyafewcountrieshaveorganisationswiththeappropriateresourcesforsetting
limits.Mostcountriesbaselimitsonthefollowing:
Limit

Country / Union

TLVThresholdLimitValue

USA

MAK-MaximaleArbeitsplatz-Konzentration

Germany

MAC

Russia

WELWorkplaceExposureLimit

UnitedKingdom

IOELVs(IndicativeOccupationalExposureLimitValue)

Europe

OESOccupationalExposureStandards

Australia

WESWorkplaceExposureStandards

NewZealand

Quantifying Airborne Concentrations of

Chemical Agents
Airbornecontaminantscanbequantifiedinseveralways;

Byvolume-atmosphericconcentrationinpartsper
million(ppm)

Byweight-milligramsofsubstancepercubicmetreof
air(mg.m-3).

Milligrams per cubic metre (mg m-3)

mg=mg/m3=mgm-3

m3

Quantifying Airborne Concentrations

of Chemical Agents
Thereisacorrelationbetweenppmandmg.m-3:

Concbyweight(mg.m-3)=Concbyvolume(ppm)xMolecularweight(g)
24.06

at20Cand760mmHg(1atmospherepressure)

Quantifying Airborne Concentrations

of Chemical Agents
Canyourearrangethisequationtoconvertppmtomg.m-3?
Concbyweight(mg.m-3)=Concbyvolume(ppm)xMolecularweight(g)
24.06

Concbyvolume(ppm)

Quantifying Airborne Concentrations

of Chemical Agents
Canyourearrangethisequationtoconvertppmtomg.m-3?
Concbyweight(mg.m-3)=Concbyvolume(ppm)xMolecularweight(g)
24.06

Concbyvolume(ppm)

=Concbyweight(mg.m-3)x24.06

Molecularweight(g)

Categories of Exposure Limits

Long Term Exposure LimitsareexpressedasaTime Weighted Average

(TWA)normallyoveraneighthourperiod.Thisallowsforexposurestovary
throughtheworkingdaysolongastheaverageexposuredoesnotexceed
thelimit.

Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL)normallyovera15minuteperiodare

usedwhenexposureforshortperiodsoftimeoccurs.

Ceiling Limitsaresometimesusedandareconcentrationsthatshouldnot
beexceededduringanypartoftheworkingexposure.

"Skin" Notation - Substancescanhaveacontributingexposureeffectby

thecutaneousroute(includingmucousmembranesandeyes).

Effects of Mixed Exposures

Synergistic substances:knowncasesofsynergismare
considerablylesscommonthantheothertypesofbehaviourin
mixedexposures.

Additive substances:wherethereisreasontobelievethatthe
effectsoftheconstituentsareadditive,andwheretheWELSare
basedonthesamehealtheffects,themixedexposureshouldbe
assessedusingaformula.

Independent substances:wherenosynergisticoradditiveeffects
areknownorconsideredlikely,theconstituentscanberegardedas
actingindependentlyandthemeasuresneededtoachieve
adequatecontrolassessedforeachseparately.

Calculation of exposure with regard to the specified

reference periods
The 8-hour reference period
Exposurestreatedasequivalenttoasingleuniformexposurefor8hours(the8-hour
time-weightedaverage(TWA)exposure).
Representedmathematicallyby:

(C1xT1)+(C2xT2)+.+(CnxTn)
8
Where:
Cnistheoccupationalexposure
Tnistheassociatedexposuretimeinhoursinany24-hourperiod.

Calculation of exposure with regard to the

specified reference periods
The 8-hour reference period - Example1
Theoperatorworksfor7h20minonaprocessinwhichheisexposedtoasubstance
hazardoustohealth.Theaverageexposureduringthatperiodismeasuredas
0.12mgm-3.
The8-hourTWAthereforeis:
7h20min(7.33h)at0.12mgm-3
40min(0.67h)at0mgm-3
Thatis:
(0.12x7.33)+(0x0.67)=0.11mgm-3
8

Calculation of exposure with regard to the

specified reference periods
The 8-hour reference period - Example2

Theoperatorworksfor6h00minonaprocessinwhichheisexposedtoa
substancehazardoustohealth.Theaverageexposureduringthatperiodis
measuredas0.5mgm-3.Theoperatorthenworksforafurther1hourinwhich
heisexposedto1.5mgm-3.

Whatisthe8-hourTWA

Calculation of exposure with regard to the

specified reference periods
The 8-hour reference period - Example2

Theoperatorworksfor6h00minonaprocessinwhichheisexposedtoa
substancehazardoustohealth.Theaverageexposureduringthatperiodis
measuredas0.5mg.m-3.Theoperatorthenworksforafurther1hourinwhich
heisexposedto1.5mg.m-3.
Whatisthe8-hourTWAthereforeis:
6h00min(6.00h)at0.5mgm-3
1h00min(1.00h)at1.5mgm-3
1h00min(1.00h)at0.0mgm-3
Thatis:
(0.5x6.00)+(1.5x1.00)+(0x1.00)=0.56 mg m-3
8

The short-term reference period

Exposureshouldberecordedastheaverageoverthespecifiedshort-termreference
period(usually15minutes)andshouldnormallybedeterminedbysamplingoverthat
period.

Iftheexposureperiodislessthan15minutes,thesamplingresultshouldbe
averagedover15minutes.Forexample,ifa5minutesampleproducesalevelof150
ppmandisimmediatelyfollowedbyaperiodofzeroexposurethenthe15-minute
averageexposurewillbe50ppm.
Thatis:

5x150=50ppm
15

Biological Monitoring Guidance Values

Complimentarytechniquetoairmonitoring.

Biologicalmonitoringisthemeasurementandassessmentof
hazardoussubstancesortheirmetabolitesintissues,excretaor
expiredairinexposedworkers.

Measurementsreflectabsorptionofasubstancebyallroutes.

Particularlyusefulwhereexposureisbyroutesotherthaninhalation

InmostcaseslimitsforBiologicalMonitoringarenotstatutory.

Biologicalmonitoringundertakenneedstobeconductedona
voluntarybasis(i.e.withthefullyinformedconsentofall
concerned).

Occupational Hygiene
PRINCIPLES
Anticipation
Recognition
Evaluation
Control
...of chemical,physical, or biological
agents arising from work activities
so as to prevent or reduce risks to
health

ANTICIPATION OF RISK
DURINGDESIGNSTAGEOFAPROCESS/

EQUIPMENTORFORMULATIONOFCHEMICALS
ORBEFORESTARTINGPROCESSORWORK
OPERATIONS

ANTICIPATEPOTENTIALHEALTHRISKS:
Processcharacteristics
Physicochemicalproperties
Possiblehealtheffects
Pastexperiences
Similarityofthechemicalstructuretoa
knownhazardouschemical

RECOGNITION OF HAZARD
INFORMATION
Material-
Inventory,CSDS/MSDS,specification

Process
Processflow&description
Plantlayout
Equipment
Specification

IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES
WORKPLACEOBSERVATION
-Sourceofhazard
-Workpractice
-Natureofexposure
-Existingcontrols

IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES
FEEDBACK
-Management&supervisors
-Workers
-Companydoctor/industrialnurse
HEALTHRECORDS
-Poisoning&diseasecases
-Prevalence

EVALUATE RISKS
ESTIMATEEXPOSURE
Qualitatively
Quantitativemeasurementorsampling
Frequency,duration,magnitude

CHARACTERISERISK
Applyexposurestandards
Acceptableornot
Tocontrolornot

QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT
OF HEALTH RISK

EXPOSURE

HAZARD

LOW

MEDIUM

HIGH

LOW

VERY LOW
RISK

LOW
RISK

MODERATE
RISK

MEDIUM

LOW RISK MODERATE HIGH RISK

RISK

HIGH

MODERATE HIGH RISK VERY HIGH

RISK
RISK

EXPOSURE STANDARDS
LimitsBelowWhichWorkersMayBe

ExposedToHealthRisksWithout
ExperiencingAnyAdverseHealthEffects
UsefulInMakingDecisionWhetherTo
InstituteControlMeasures
P.E.L.,TLV(USA),MEL&OES(UK)

MALAYSIAN EXPOSURE
STANDARDS
CHEMICALS
PermissibleExposureLimits(PEL)underF&M(Lead)
Regulations1984
PELunderF&M(AsbestosProcess)Regulations1989
PELunderF&M(MineralDust)Regulations1989
PELunderOSH(USECHH)Regulations2000
TIMEWEIGHTEDAVERAGE(TWA)
CEILING
MAXIMUMEXPOSURELIMITS(MEL)

NOISE
PELunderF&M(NoiseExposure)Regulations1989

CONTROL OF RISK
Whenriskisunacceptableorwhen
exposurelimitsareexceeded
ApproachesToControllingRisk:
-EliminateorreducehazardattheSource
-InterventionatthePath
-ProtecttheReceiver

PRINCIPLE OF CONTROL
SOURCE
PATH
Distance
Barrier
Dilution
RECEIVER
Controlroom
Workpractice
Awareness/Attitude
Surveillance
PersonalProtection

Elimination
Substitution
Enclosure
Engineeringcontrol

PRINCIPLE OF RISK CONTROL

ControlAtSourceRatherThanAt
Receiver
EliminateOrIsolateRatherThanMinimise
ControlBelowOccupationalExposure
Standards
ControlRiskToAsLowAsReasonably
Achievable(ALARA)

HIERARCHY OF
CONTROL MEASURES
Elimination

Of Risk
Substitution
Total Enclosure
Isolation Of Risk
Modification Of Process
Engineering Methods
Safe Work System & Procedure
Personal Protection

ENGINEERING CONTROLS
Minimisingexposuresbytheapplicationof
engineeringprinciples
Suchastheuseof
generalordilutionventilation
localexhaustventilation
waterspray

General or Dilution Ventilation

Allowschemicalemissionstomixwiththe
workroomair
then
dilutestoacceptableexposurelevels

Air Movement

Generation

LOCAL EXHAUST
VENTILATION
LEVSystemIsASystemTo
RemoveContaminantsAtIts
PointOfGenerationSoAsTo
PreventInhalationByWorkers

COMPONENTS OF L.E.V. SYSTEM

STACK

DUCTING

AIR
CLEANER

HOOD

FAN

SAFE WORK SYSTEM

& PRACTICES
Adoptionofwork
proceduresand
practicesthat
eliminatesor
minimisetheriskto
health

DEFINITION OF PPE
-USECHH Regulations
PERSONALPROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT(PPE)MEANS
Any equipment which is intended to
be worn or held by a person at work
& which protects him against one or
more risks to his health or safety &
any additional accessory designed to
meet that objective

USE OF APPROVED PERSONAL

PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
(REG. 16)

When
ImpracticableApplicationOfOther
ControlMeasures;
AsAnInterimMeasure;
ComplementaryToOtherControl
Measures

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT
HEAD&FACEPROTECTION
Helmets,goggles,safetyglasses,face

shield
HEARINGPROTECTION
Earmuffs,earplugs
Disposable,reusable

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT
RESPIRATORYPROTECTION
Oxygendeficientatmosphere
Particulateorgas/vapour

Dust

RESPIRATORY
PROTECTION
Fume

O2 21%
Gas

1 % Others

N2 78%
Mist
Vapour
Smoke

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT
BODY
Apron,uniform,protectivesuits

HANDPROTECTION
Glove,barriercream
Physicalorchemicalresistant

LEGPROTECTION
Safetyshoes,Wellingtonboots