The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model and Network Protocols

DEC3023 : Computer
Networking
Fundamentals
Chapter 2.0 : The Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) Model And Network Protocols
Noted prepared by:

Pn. Wan Fazlini Idayu binti Wan Fakari
2.1 Know network

communications
THE OSI MODEL

The OSI (Open System Interconnection) model is
developed by ISO in 1984.
It provide a reference model for the complex
aspects related to network communication.
It divides the different functions and services provided
by network hardware and software in 7 layers.
Helps to isolate problems and allows vendors to
focus on just the layer(s) in which their hardware
or software is implemented and be able to create
products that are compatible, standardized and
interoperable.
Dollah Naik Teksi Supaya Pulang Awal

era dan Nora Telah Setuju Pergi Afrika
7 LAYERS OF THE OSI

MODEL
k Darwisy Naik Tangga Sekat2 Pahtu Apa

k Din Naik Teksi Salam Pergi Astaka
AWAL
PULANG
SUPAYA
TEKSI
NAIK
DOLLAH
PAK
Data travel down the layer in the sending device.

and up the layers in the receiving device.
CABLE
HOST A
HOST B
The OSI Network Model

Standard
The OSI network model layers are arranged here from the lower
levels starting with the physical (hardware) to the higher levels.
Physical Layer - The actual hardware.

Data Link Layer - Data transfer method (802x ethernet). Puts data in frames and ensures
error free transmission. Also controls the timing of the network transmission. Adds frame
type, address, and error control information. IEEE divided this layer into the two following
sublayers.
Logical Link control (LLC) - Maintains the Link between two computers by establishing
Service Access Points (SAPs) which are a series of interface points. IEEE 802.2.
Media Access Control (MAC) - Used to coordinate the sending of data between
computers. The 802.3, 4, 5, and 12 standards apply to this layer. If you hear someone
talking about the MAC address of a network card, they are referring to the hardware
address of the card.
Network Layer - IP network protocol. Routes messages using the best path available.
Transport Layer - TCP, UDP. Ensures properly sequenced and error free transmission.
Session Layer - The user's interface to the network. Determines when the session is
begun or opened, how long it is used, and when it is closed. Controls the transmission of
data during the session. Supports security and name lookup enabling computers to locate
each other.
Presentation Layer - ASCII or EBCDEC data syntax. Makes the type of data transparent
to the layers around it. Used to translate date to computer specific format such as byte
ordering. It may include compression. It prepares the data, either for the network or the
application depending on the direction it is going.
LAYER 7 : APPLICATION LAYER

Does not contain any of the application, such as a word
processor or Internet Explorer.
It provides services to facilitate the communication
between software application and lower network
services.
Protocols:
1. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): used for uploading
and downloading files from and to FTP server.
2. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): send
and received e-mail from e-mail server.
3. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): use by
web
browser to send/receive information.
LAYER 6 : PRESENTATION LAYER
The presentation layer is primarily

concerned with the format of the data.
Data is formatted so that one type of
application (host) can understand
data from another type of application.
Encoding , decoding, compressing and
decompressing .
LAYER 6 : PRESENTATION LAYER

Data and text can be formatted as ASCII
files, EBCDIC files or can even be
Encrypted.
Sound may become a Midi file.
Video files can be formatted as MPEG
video files or QuickTime files.
Graphics and visual images can be
formatted as PICT, TIFF, JPEG, or even GIF
files.
LAYER 5 : SESSION LAYER

Menubuhkan,
menyenggarakan
dan menamatkan
Establish, maintain and terminates

the communication between two computer
over
a network.
This layer is primarily concerned with
coordinating applications as they interact
on different hosts.
Protocols: Apple talk, NetBIOS
LAYER 4 : TRANSPORT LAYER
Manipulate data and prepare it for delivery

(transport) through the network.
Transport layer protocols break large data
unit received from Session layer into
smaller units called segments. This
process is known as segmentation.
Segmentation helps in data transmission
efficiency.
It also establishes the end-to-end
connection, from your host to another host.
LAYER 4 : TRANSPORT LAYER

continue..
Essentially the transport layer opens up the
connection from your system through a
network and then through a wide area cloud
to the receiving system at the other end.
Protocols:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
LAYER 3 : NETWORK LAYER

Determine the path for data from the
source to the destination computer.
It manage switching and routing of data
packets based on network addresses.
Protocols:
IP (Internet Protocol)
IPX (Internet Protocol Exchange)
Network layer protocols provide two important

functions: logical addressing and routing.
LAYER 2 : DATA LINK LAYER

This layer is where the network packets are
translated into raw bits (00110101) to be
transmitted on the physical layer.
This is also a layer that uses the most basic
addressing scheme, MAC Addresses.
Protocols:
CSMA (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access)
TOKEN RING
FRAME RELAY
MAC ADDRESS
ETHERNET
WIFI
LAYER 1 : PHYSICAL LAYER

Is the physical connection between
network devices.
Cables, connections, hubs , switch, Router
and Network Interface Cards (NIC) operate
at this layer.
Protocols:
IEEE 802
ISDN
(Integrated Services
Digital Network)
What basically happens when data passes from Host A to

Host B ?
Host A
Host B
Datuk
Din
Demam
Sangat
Panas
Farid
Bantu
1. The Application, Presentation and Session layer take user
input and
converts it into data.
2. The Transport layer adds a segment header converting the
data into segments.
3. The Network layer adds a network header and converts the
segments into packets.
4. The Data Link layer adds a frame header and frame trails
converting the packets into frames.
5. The MAC sublayer layer converts the frames into a bits
which the Physical layer can put on the wire.
This whole process of moving data from host A to host B is known as DATA ENCAPSULATION
the data is being wrapped in the appropriate
protocol header so it can be properly received.
DATA ENCAPSULATION
Lets say we compose an email that we wish to send
from host A to host B.
The application we are using is EUDORA. We write the
letter
end then hit send.
Now, the computer translates the numbers into ASCII
and then
into binary (1s and 0s).
If the email is a long one, then it is broken up and
mailed in
pieces. This all happens by the time the data reaches
the
Transport layer - SEGMENT.
At the network layer, a network header is

added to
the data.
This header contains information required to
complete the transfer, such as source and
destination logical addresses.
In this layer the data is called PACKET.
The packet from the network layer is then

passed
to the data link layer where a frame
header and a
frame trailer are added thus creating a
data link
frame.
Finally, the physical layer provides a service to

the
data link layer.
This service includes encoding the data link
frame
into a pattern of 1s and 0s for
transmission on the
medium (usually a wire).
Example of how the OSI Layers work using

an e-mail sent from the computer on the left.
E-mail received from JULIANA:
Meet me at JJ 7.00 for
breaking fast.
E-mail sent from

JULIANA:
Meet me at JJ 7:00 for
breaking fast.
JULIANA
JULIANA
Identify sender and intended receiver; is

there an e-mail application available?
Encode data with X coding

key; use ASCII characters.
Initiate and terminate the session
according to X protocol.
Make sure all data is sent

intact.
Keep track of how many hops;
open shortest path First;
Go to IP address 255.65.0.123
Is the initial connection set up? Put data
into frames according to X standard.
Send as electrical signal over the network
cable at X voltage, and X Mbps.
APPLICATION
layer 7
PRESENTATION
layer 6
SESSION
layer 5
TRANSPORT
layer 4
NETWORK
layer 3
DATA LINK
layer 2
PHYSICAL
layer 1
Identified sender and intended

receiver; found e-mail application.
Decoded data with X decoding
key; used ASCII characters.
Initiated and terminated the
session according to X protocol.
Make sure all data has arrived
intact.
Keep track of how many hops;
opened the shortest path First;
Went to IP address 255.65.0.123
The initial connection set up. Decoded
data in frame according to X standard.
Receive electrical signal over the
network cable at X voltage, and X
Mbps.
Data Packets
A small chunk of data transmitted over the Internet.

A packet is a formatted unit of data carried by a packet mode computer
network.
A packet consists of two kinds of data: control information and user data.
The control information provides data the network needs to deliver the user
data, for example: source and destination addresses, error detection codes
like checksums, and sequencing information
JULIANA
AINUL
The
The
Internet
Internet
Frame
A frame is a data packet on the Layer 2 of
the OSI model.
A frame is "the unit of transmission in a
link layer protocol, and consists of a linklayer header followed by a packet.
Examples are Ethernet frames (maximum
1500 byte plus overhead), PPP frames and
V.42 modem frames
SUMMARY
OSI MODEL
LAYER
PROTOCOLS
DEVICE
APPLICATION LAYER
Interaction at the user or
application level:
E-mail, file transfer,
client/server
FTP, SMTP,
HTTP
Gateway
PRESENTATION LAYER
Translation of data:
Encoding, compression,
conversion. ASCII to
EBCID, BCD to binary.
JPEG, GIFF,
MPEG
Gateway
SESSION LAYER
Starts, stops session.
Maintain order.
Apple Talk,
NetBIOS
TRANSPORT LAYER
Ensure delivery of entire
file or message
TCP, UDP
Gateway
Gateway,
Router
SUMMARY
OSI MODEL
LAYER
PROTOCOLS
DEVICE
NETWORK LAYER
Routes data to different
LANs and WANs based on
network address.
IP/ IPX
Router, ATM
Switch
DATA LINK LAYER

Transmits packet from
node to node based on
address
CSMA/CD, Token
Ring, ARP
Switch , Bridge,
NIC
PHYSICAL LAYER
Electrical signal and
cabling.
IEEE 802, ISDN
Cable,
Repeater, Hub,
Amplifier
2.2 Local Wired

Network
MAC address of a host using

ipconfig/all command (1)
MAC, Media Access Control, address is a globally
unique identifier assigned to network devices, and
therefore it is often referred to as hardware or
physical address.
MAC addresses are 6-byte (48-bits) in length, and are

written in MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS format.
The first 3-bytes are ID number of the manufacturer,
which is assigned by an Internet standards body. The
second 3-bytes are serial number assigned by the
manufacturer.

ipconfig/all command (2)
MAC layer represents layer 2 of the TCP/IP (adopted
from OSI Reference Model), where IP represents layer 3.
MAC address can be thought of as supporting hardware
implementation whereas IP address supports software
implementation.
MAC addresses are permanently burned into hardware
by hardware manufacturer, but IP addresses are
assigned to the network devices by a network
adminstrator. DHCP relies on MAC address to assign IP
addresses to network devices.
2.2.1

ipconfig/all command
Practical Work!!
Folow step-by-step to get MAC address of a
host
Objective
- Determine the MAC address of a Windows
XP computer on an Ethernet network using
the ipconfig / all command.
- Access to the Run command.

Step 1: Open a Windows
command prompt window
a. From the Windows XP desktop, click
Start then Run.
b. Type cmd in the Run dialogue box then
click OK.A Windows command prompt
window opens.

Step 2: Use the ipconfig /all command
a. Enter the ipconfig /all command at the
command prompt.
b. Press Enter. (Typical results are shown
in the following figure, but your
computer will display different
information.)



Summary - How to Find a MAC
Address
The list below summarizes options to find
a computer's MAC address:
a. Windows: ipconfig /all, or winipcfg
b. Linux and some Unix: ifconfig -a
c. Mac with Open Transport: TCP/IP Control
Panel - Info or User Mode/Advanced
d. Mac with MacTCP: TCP/IP Control Panel Ethernet icon
2.2.2
Standard IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame

(1)
IEEE 802.3 is a collection of IEEE standards defining
the Physical Layer and Data Link Layer's
media access control (MAC) sub layer of wired
Ethernet.
This is generally a LAN technology with some WAN
applications. Physical connections are made between
nodes and/or infrastructure devices (hubs, switches,
routers) by various types of cable.
802.3 is a technology that supports the IEEE 802.1

network architecture.
2.2.2
Standard IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame

(1)
The maximum packet size is 1518 bytes,
although to allow the Q-tag for Virtual LAN
and priority data in 802.3ac it is extended
to 1522 bytes.
If the upper layer protocol submits a
protocol data unit (PDU) less than 64 bytes,
802.3 will pad the data field to achieve the
minimum 64 bytes. The minimum Frame
size will then always be of 64 bytes.
ETHERNET FRAME
Ethernet frames consist of 4 portions:
preamble, header, payload, and trailer.
PREAMB
LE
(7 bytes)
Start Frame
Delimiter
(1 byte)
Destination
Address
(6 bytes)
Source
Address
(6 bytes)
Length
(2 bytes)
DATA &
PADDING
FCS
(4 bytes)
(46 to 1500 bytes)
FRAME HEADER
(15 bytes)
preambl
e
header
payload
trailer
PREAMB
LE
Start Frame
Delimiter
(1 byte)
(7 bytes)
Destination
Address
(6 bytes)
Source
Address
(6 bytes)
Length
(2 bytes)
DATA &
PADDING
FCS
(4 bytes)
(46 to 1500 bytes)
FRAME HEADER
(15 bytes)
preambl
e
header
payload
trailer
Preambleused for synchronizing receiver to

transmitter. (mengandungi bit yang membolehkan penghantar dan penerima
menyelaraskan perhubungan/komunikasi mereka)
Header
Start Frame Delimiter8-bit sequence
(10101011).
Destination AddressDestination MAC address.
Source AddressSource MAC address.
LengthIndicates the length of data field
(number of LLC data bytes). (menunjukkan panjang bagi segmen data)
Logical Link Control (LLC)Governs the assembly of data at the

data link (Layer 2) level. (Mengatur pengumpulan data pada peringkat data link
(lapisan 2))
Ethernet FrameCont
Payload
DataPayload contained in a field
between 46 bytes to just over 1500
bytes in length. (ruang mengandungi muatan data antara
46 bait hingga 1500 bait)
Pad0 bits added to the data field if

there are fewer than 46 bytes of data in
that field. (0 bit ditambah ke medan data jika ia kurang dari 46
bait data di ruangan itu)
Ethernet FrameCont
Trailer
Frame Check Sequence (FCS)the extra
checksum characters added to a frame in a
communication protocol for error detection and
correction. Detects transmission errors and
provides quality of service at receiving
end(receiver). (karakter checksum tambahan yang ditambah ke sebuah frame
dalam komunikasi untuk mengesan kesalahan dan pembetulan. Mengesan kesalahan
penghantaran dan menyediakan kualiti perkhidmatan pada menerima akhir(receiver))
Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC)an algorthm

to ensure the integrity of data and error detection
in a data that to be transmitted or stored. (algoritma
untuk memastikan integriti data dan mengesan kesalahan pada suatu data yang akan
dihantar atau disimpan)
2.2.3
Indicate logical address of a

computer
A logical address is the address at which an item (memory cell,
storage element, network host) appears to reside from the
perspective of an executing application program.
A logical address may be different from the physical address due to
the operation of an address translator or mapping function.
Such mapping functions may be, in the case of a computer
memory architecture, a memory management unit (MMU) between
the CPU and the memory bus, or an address translation layer,
For example, the Data Link Layer, between the hardware and the
internetworking protocols (Internet Protocol) in a computer
networking system.
2.2.4
Prepare IP address of a computer

Internet Protocol Address (or IP Address) is an
unique address that computing devices use to
identify itself and communicate with other devices
in the Internet Protocol network.
Any device connected to the IP network must have
an unique IP address within its network.
An IP address is analogous to a street address or
telephone number in that it is used to uniquely
identify a network device to deliver mail message,
or call ("view") a website.
Dotted Decimals
The traditional IP Addresses (IPv4) uses a 32-bit number to
represent an IP address, and it defines both network and host
address.
Due to IPv4 addresses running out, a new version of the IP
protocol (IPv6) has been invented to offer virtually limitless
number of unique addresses.
An IP address is written in "dotted decimal" notation, which is 4
sets of numbers separated by period each set representing 8bit number ranging from (1-255).
An example of IPv4 address is 216.3.128.12, which is the IP
address assigned to topwebhosts.org.
Dotted Decimals (2)

An IPv4 address is divided into two parts: network
and host address.
The network address determines how many of the
32 bits are used for the network address, and
remaining bits for the host address. The host
address can further divided into subnetwork and
host number.
Class A, B, C and CIDR networks
Traditionally IP network is classified as A, B or C
network. The computers identified the class by the
first 3 bits (A=000, B=100, C=110), while humans
TCP/IP Classes
Class type
Address range
class A
1 to 126
class B
128 to 191
class C
192 to 223
class D
224 to 239.
class E
240 to 255.
Class A first bit must start with 0.

Class B 2 initial bit must start with 10.
Class C 3 initial bit must start with 110.
Class D 4 initial bit must start with
1110.
Class E 4 initial bit must start with
1111.
Class A
The first bit must be 0 refers to the eight

bits in w. So, the bits starting from
00000000 to 01111111. (Bit yang pertama mesti 0
merujuk kepada 8 bit pada w. Maka nilai bit bermula dari 00000000
sehingga 01111111)
IP class A from 0 to 127 BUT the value 0 is

the network number and can not be used
and the value 127 is local loop back (used
to perform tests on themselves, such as
using the ping command on its own IP
address), also can not be used. So IP class
A from 1 to 126. (IP kelas A bermula dari 0 hingga 127 TETAPI
nilai 0 merupakan network number dan tidak boleh digunakan dan 127
merupakan local loop back (digunakan untuk melakukan ujian terhadap diri
sendiri seperti menggunakan arahan ping pada alamat IP sendiri), juga
tidak boleh digunakan. Oleh itu IP kelas A bermula dari 1 sehingga 126)
Class B
2 initial bits is 10 (from right), referring to

the eight bits in w. So, the bits starting
from 10000000 to 10111111. (2 bit permulaan
mestilah 10 (dari sebelah kanan), merujuk kepada 8 bit pada w. Maka nilai
bit bermula dari 10000000 sehingga 10111111)
class B IP address range starting from 128

to 191. (julat alamat IP kelas B bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
Exp: 155.76.76.8
Class C
3 initial bits is 110 (from right), referring

to the eight bits in w. So, the bits starting
from 11000000 to 11011111. (23bit permulaan
mestilah 110 (dari sebelah kanan), merujuk kepada 8 bit pada w. Maka
nilai bit bermula dari 10000000 sehingga 11011111)
class C IP address range starting from 192

to 223. (julat alamat IP kelas C bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
Exp: 200.56.17.8
Class D

class D IP address range starting from 224

to 239. (julat alamat IP kelas D bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
Exp: 230.76.76.8
Class E

class E IP address range starting from 240

to 255. (julat alamat IP kelas E bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
Exp: 243.76.76.8
TCP/IP ClassesCont
2.3 Basic concept of internet

connection and information send
across internet
INTERNET
The Internet is a
system of linked
networks that are
worldwide in scope
and facilitate data
communication
services such as
remote login, file
transfer, electronic
mail, the World Wide
Web and newsgroups.
INTRANET
An intranet is a private network ,
available only within that
organization.
Internet
The Internet is a network of networks that
connects users in every country in the
world that allow the users at any computer
to get information from any other
computer if they have permission. (Internet
adalah rangkaian kepada rangkaian yang menghubungkan pengguna
dalam setiap negara di dunia yang membolehkan pengguna di mana-mana
komputer untuk mendapatkan maklumat dari komputer lain jika mereka
memiliki kebenaran)
Internet uses a portion of the total

resources of the currently existing public
telecommunication networks. (Internet
menggunakan sebahagian dari jumlah keseluruhan sumber daya rangkaian

telekomunikasi awam)
59
InternetCont
60
Internet Service Provider

An ISP is a company that provides the
connections and support to access the
Internet. It can also provide additional
services such as Email and web hosting.
(ISP
adalah perusahaan yang menyediakan Sambungan dan sokongan untuk
mengakses Internet. ia juga dapat memberikan perkhidmatan tambahan
seperti e-mel dan web hosting)
ISPs are essential to gaining access to the

Internet. No one gets on the Internet
without a host computer, and no one gets
on the Internet without going through an
ISP. (ISP sangat penting untuk mendapatkan akses ke Internet. akses ke
Internet tidak dapat dilakukan tanpa komputer hos, dan juga tanpa melalui
ISP)
61
ISPs
ISP Interconnection allows traffic
originating at a source connected to one
ISPs network to reach a destination
connected to another ISPs network,
around the block or around the world. (ISP
Interconnection membolehkan trafik yang berasal pada sumber yang
disambungkan ke rangkaian pertama ISP menjangkau/disambungkan
kepada rangkaian ISP lain, di blok berhampiran atau di seluruh dunia)
62
ISPs
63
Relationship between ISP &

Internet
Individual computers and local networks connect
to the ISP at a Point of Presence (POP). A POP is
the connection point between the ISP's network
and the particular geographical region that the
POP is servicing. (komputer tunggal dan rangkaian tempatan
disambungkan ke ISP di Point of Presence (POP). POP adalah titik Sambungan antara
rangkaian ISP dan wilayah perkhidmatan POP)
The Internet is made up of very high-speed data

links that interconnect ISP POPs and ISPs to each
other. These interconnections are part of the
very large, high capacity network known as the
Internet Backbone. (Internet terdiri daripada pautan data yang
berkelajuan tinggi yang berhubung diantara ISP POPs dan ISPs yang lain.
perhubungan ini merupakan sebahagian dari rangkaian yang luas, berkapasiti tinggi
yang dikenali sebagai Backbone Internet)
64
Relationship between ISP &

Internet
65
Option of connections to the ISP

Example of ISP
AOL (America On-Line)

Earthlink
Time Warner Cable
Verizon
Jaring
Streamyx
ISP in Malaysia
Celcom
Maxis
Digi
P1
WiMax
UMobile
66
67

Dial-up Internet access is a form of Internet access that uses the
facilities of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) to establish a
dialled connection to an Internet service provider (ISP) via telephone lines.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is a family of technologies that provides
digital data transmission over the wires of a local telephone network
Cable modem is a type of network bridge and modem that provides bidirectional data communication via radio frequency channels on a HFC and
RFoG infrastructure
Leased line
Service available from most telephone companies. Provides high-speed
connection over dedicated digital data lines. The most common example of
a leased line is a T1 (E1). Primarily for a business-class service.
Satellite
Service available from Internet dish satellite companies. Provides medium
speeds via satellite. Satellite may be the only choice faster than dial-up in
some rural areas.
68
69
ISP levels of service

Home service is normally less expensive than
business services, and generally provides scaleddown services such as slower connection speed,
reduced web space storage, and fewer email
accounts. (perkhidmatan Home biasanya lebih murah berbanding perkhidmatan
perniagaan, dan umumnya memberikan tahap perkhidmatan yang kurang seperti
kelajuan Sambungan lebih lambat, mengurangkan ruangan simpanan web, dan akaun
email yang sedikit)
Business class service is more expensive but

provides faster connection speeds and additional
web space and email accounts. A business class
service may include twenty, fifty or more email
addresses. (perkhidmatan kelas perniagaan adalah lebih mahal tetapi memberi
kelajuan sambungan yang lebih cepat dan tambahan ruangan web dan akaun email.
Sebuah perkhidmatan kelas perniagaan boleh meliputi dua puluh, lima puluh atau lebih
alamat email)
70
FE Dis 2014:types of the service provided by
ISP levels of service
71
Importance of Internet Protocol

(IP)
The IP protocol is one of a group of

protocols that are collectively referred to
as TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol /
Internet Protocol). (Protokol IP merupakan salah satu
kumpulan protokol yang kebiasaannya disebut sebagai TCP / IP
(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol))
The Internet Protocol (IP) uses packets to

carry data. (Internet Protokol (IP) menggunakan paket untuk
membawa data)
Whether you are playing an Internet video

game, chatting with a friend, sending
email or searching the Web, the
information you are sending or receiving is
carried in the form of IP packets. (maklumat yang
dihantar atau diterima dilakukan dalam bentuk paket IP)
72
Internet Protocol (IP)
73
Importance of Internet Protocol

(IP)
An IP packet has a header at the beginning
which contains the source and destination
IP addresses. (paket IP memiliki header pada bahagian
permulaan yang mengandungi sumber dan alamat tujuan IP)
It also contains control information that

describes the packet to network devices,
such as routers, it passes through and also
helps to control its behavior on the
network. (juga mengandungi maklumat yang menggambarkan
tentang paket kepada peranti rangkaian seperti router, perjalanannya dan
mengawal aktivitinya di dalam rangkaian)
The IP packet is sometimes referred to as a

datagram. (Paket IP kadang-kadang disebut sebagai datagram)
74
Internet Protocol (IP)

The IP Packet
75
How ISP handle Packets

Before being sent on the Internet,
messages are divided into packets. IP
packet size is between 64 to 1500 bytes
for Ethernet networks, and contains mostly
user data. (Sebelum dihantar di Internet, mesej dibahagi menjadi
paket-paket. saiz paket IP adalah antara 64-1500 bait untuk rangkaian
Ethernet, dan sebahagian besar mengandungi data pengguna)
When a packet is sent across the Internet,

the ISP determines whether the packet is
destined for a local service located on the
ISP network, or a remote service located
on a different network. (Ketika sebuah paket dihantar di
Internet, ISP menentukan apakah paket yang ditujukan untuk
perkhidmatan tempatan yang terletak pada rangkaian ISP, atau
perkhidmatan jauh yang terletak pada rangkaian yang berbeza)
76

Every ISP has a control facility for their
network, known as the Network Operations
Center (NOC). The NOC usually controls
traffic flow and houses services such as
email and web hosting. (Setiap ISP memiliki kemudahan
kawalan untuk rangkaian mereka, yang dikenali sebagai Network
Operations Center (NOC). NOC biasanya mengawal arus trafik dan
perkhidmatan seperti email dan web hosting)
77
78
Packets travel through the

internet
All data sent over the internet is sent in

packets.
These packets are piped through your
Internet connection. When a packet arrives at
a destination computer, the data is extracted
and reassembled into a file.
79

internet
Ping and Traceroute are two programs that

can be used to send packets of information
to remote computers for the purpose of
retrieving information.
These programs are useful for testing your
internet connection.
80

internet
Ping utility:
The ping utility tests end-to-end

connectivity between source and
destination.
Checks whether the transmission is
successful.
It tells you how long a packet of data takes
to travel from your computer to a specified
host, and back again(in this case, the
packet is 32 bytes in size).
81

internet
Ping utility:
Ping test:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Click the Start button and select Run.

Entercommandorcmdinto the Open field.
Click OK
Ping 127.0.0.1
Refer to your IP !
Enter
82

internet
Traceroute
Traces the route from source to destination.

Displays each hop along the way and the time it takes for each
one.
A traceroute also shows how many times your packets are
being rebroadcast by other servers until it gets to the final
destination.
83

internet
Traceroutes allow you to see the path your packets take over
the Internet. Sometimes, they will also allow you to "see" how
your information traveled over the world: Many companies will
name their servers based on where the server is located. From
our example above, our information passed from our computer
to servers in Washington DC then through servers in San Jose
before reaching its destination (yahoo.com).
Traceroutes can show where there is a break in your
connection. This allows you to determine exactly where your
packets are being dropped or lost. Dropped or lost packets on a
traceroute will usually show as asterisks (*).
Note: Just like ping, some servers do not allow you to
traceroute all the way to them - you will get timeouts and
sometimes errors. You should try multiple servers if you are
testing your connection.
84
2.4 Understand
Network Services
Network Service
Network services are the foundation of a
networked computing environment.
Generally network services are installed on
one or more servers to provide
shared resources to client computers.
Network services are configured on
corporate LANs to ensure security and user
friendly operation.
They help the LAN run smoothly and
efficiently.
2.5.1
Domain Name Service

(DNS)
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical

naming system for computers, services, or any
resource connected to the Internet or a
private network.
It associates various information with domain names
assigned to each of the participants.
Most importantly, it translates domain names
meaningful to humans into the numerical (binary)
identifiers associated with networking equipment for
the purpose of locating and addressing these
devices worldwide.
Domain Name Service (DNS)

continued.....
An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is
that it serves as the "phone book" for the Internet by
translating human-friendly computer hostnames into
IP addresses.
For example, www.example.com translates to 192.0.32.10.
The Domain Name System makes it possible to assign
domain names to groups of Internet users in a meaningful
way, independent of each user's physical location.
Because of this, World Wide Web (WWW) hyperlinks and
Internet contact information can remain consistent and
constant even if the current Internet routing arrangements
change or the participant uses a mobile device.
Domain Name Service (DNS)

continued.....
Internet domain names are easier to remember than

IP addresses such as 208.77.188.166 (IPv4) or
2001:db8::1f70:6e8 (IPv6).
People take advantage of this when they recite
meaningful URLs and e-mail addresses without
having to know how the machine will actually locate
them.
The Domain Name System distributes the
responsibility of assigning domain names and
mapping those names to IP addresses by designating
authoritative name servers for each domain.
2.5.2
Ping command, a browser and

nslookup
ping command
Ping is a computer network administration utility
used to test whether a particular host is reachable
across an Internet Protocol (IP) network and to
measure the round-trip time for packets sent from
the local host to a destination computer, including
the local host's own interfaces.
Ping operates by sending
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) echo
request packets to the target host and waits for an
ICMP response.

nslookup
ping command
sample of ping command:

nslookup
browser
A network browser is a tool used to browse
a computer network.
An example of this is My Network Places (or
Network Neighborhood in earlier versions of
Microsoft Windows).
An actual program called Network Browser
is offered in Mac OS 9.

nslookup
nslookup
nslookup is a computer program used in Windows
and Unix to query Domain Name System (DNS)
servers to find DNS details, including IP addresses
of a particular computer, MX records for a domain
and the NS servers of a domain.
The name nslookup means "name server lookup".
The most common version of the program is
included as part of the BIND package.

nslookup
nslookup
continued.......
More modern alternatives to nslookup are the "

host" and "dig" programs which also ship with
BIND, all of which look up nameserver information
in /etc/resolv.conf. nslookup can warn you that
you're looking at cached information (which host
does not do), so it remains useful for this reason.
nslookup has the subcommands:
server NAME (where NAME is the name or IP address of
a DNS server to query).
set type=NAME (where NAME is the type of record to
look at). For example, set type mx will give the mail
records.

nslookup
nslookup
Sample of nslookup:
continued.......
DNS in LAN
Corporate LANs use network services
such as DNS to give names to IP and
MAC addresses and DHCP to ensure
that everyone on the network has a
valid IP address.
For example, names like nm.lan is
better than numbers like
210.121.67.18,
Email Protocol in client

and server
SMTP
POP3
IMAP4

and
server
SMTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an
Internet standard for electronic mail (email) transmission across Internet Protocol
(IP) networks.
SMTP was first defined in RFC 821 and last
updated by RFC 5321 which includes the
extended SMTP (ESMTP) additions, and is
the protocol in widespread use today.
SMTP is specified for outgoing mail
transport and uses TCP port 25.
continued.....

and
server
SMTP
While electronic mail servers and other

mail transfer agents use SMTP to send and
receive mail messages, user-level client
mail applications typically only use SMTP
for sending messages to a mail server for
relaying.
For receiving messages, client applications
usually use either the Post Office Protocol
(POP) or the
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) or
a proprietary system (such as Microsoft

and
server
POP3
The Post Office Protocol (POP) is an
application-layer Internet standard protocol
used by local e-mail clients to retrieve
e-mail from a remote server over a TCP/IP
connection.
POP and IMAP (Internet Message Access
Protocol) are the two most prevalent
Internet standard protocols for e-mail
retrieval.
Virtually all modern e-mail clients and
servers support both.
continued.....

and
server
POP3
The POP protocol has been developed

through several versions, with version 3
(POP3) being the current standard.
POP3 is used for most mail clients such as
gmail and yahoo.

and
server
IMAP4
The Internet Message Access Protocol
(IMAP) is one of the two most prevalent
Internet standard protocols for e-mail
retrieval, the other being the
Post Office Protocol (POP).
Virtually all modern e-mail clients and
mail servers support both protocols as a
means of transferring e-mail messages
from a server
2.5 Apply email client

server
Practical Activities
Configure an email client to access
an email server
2.6 Apply Addressing

Schemes for TCP/IP suite
TCP/IP addressing
a unique number used by machines
(computers) to refer to each other when
sending information via the Internet.
(merupakan nombor unik yang digunakan oleh mesin (komputer) untuk

merujuk antara satu sama lain apabila menghantar maklumat melalui
internet)
It consists of 4-byte addresses (w, x, y, z)

to be assigned to each node in the
network. (Ia terdiri dari alamat 4-byte(w,x,y,z) yang perlu
diumpukkan kepada setiap nod dalam rangkaian)
Exp: 207.142.131.236
TCP/IP addressing
Addressing schemes for TCP/IP suite
is:
TCP/IP classes
Binary
Dotted decimal notation
Subnet mask
2.4.1
Addressing Scheme For TCP/IP

suite
The Internet Protocol Suite is the set of communications
protocols used for the Internet and other similar
networks.
It is commonly also known as TCP/IP, named from two of
the most important protocols in it: the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP),
which were the first two networking protocols defined in
this standard.
Modern IP networking represents a synthesis of several
developments that began to evolve in the 1960s and
1970s, namely the Internet and local area networks,
which emerged during the 1980s, together with the
advent of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s.
Addressing Scheme For TCP/IP

suite (2)
The Internet Protocol Suite, like many protocol suites, is
constructed as a set of layers. Each layer solves a set of
problems involving the transmission of data. In particular,
the layers define the operational scope of the protocols
within.
Often a component of a layer provides a well-defined
service to the upper layer protocols and may be using
services from the lower layers.
Upper layers are logically closer to the user and deal with
more abstract data, relying on lower layer protocols to
translate data into forms that can eventually be physically
transmitted.
The TCP/IP model consists of four layers (RFC 1122). From
lowest to highest, these are the Link Layer, the Internet
Layer, the Transport Layer, and the Application Layer.
TCP/IP Classes
Class type
Address range
class A
1 to 126
class B
128 to 191
class C
192 to 223
class D
224 to 239.
class E
240 to 255.
Class A first bit must start with 0.

Class B 2 initial bit must start with 10.
Class C 3 initial bit must start with 110.
Class D 4 initial bit must start with
1110.
Class E 4 initial bit must start with
1111.
Class A
The first bit must be 0 refers to the eight

bits in w. So, the bits starting from
00000000 to 01111111. (Bit yang pertama mesti 0
merujuk kepada 8 bit pada w. Maka nilai bit bermula dari 00000000
sehingga 01111111)
IP class A from 0 to 127 BUT the value 0 is

the network number and can not be used
and the value 127 is local loop back (used
to perform tests on themselves, such as
using the ping command on its own IP
address), also can not be used. So IP class
A from 1 to 126. (IP kelas A bermula dari 0 hingga 127 TETAPI
nilai 0 merupakan network number dan tidak boleh digunakan dan 127
merupakan local loop back (digunakan untuk melakukan ujian terhadap diri
sendiri seperti menggunakan arahan ping pada alamat IP sendiri), juga
tidak boleh digunakan. Oleh itu IP kelas A bermula dari 1 sehingga 126)
Class B
2 initial bits is 10 (from right), referring to

the eight bits in w. So, the bits starting
class B IP address range starting from 128

to 191. (julat alamat IP kelas B bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
Exp: 155.76.76.8
Class C

from 11000000 to 11011111. (23bit permulaan
class C IP address range starting from 192

to 223. (julat alamat IP kelas C bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
Exp: 200.56.17.8
Class D

class D IP address range starting from 224

to 239. (julat alamat IP kelas D bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
Exp: 230.76.76.8
Class E

class E IP address range starting from 240

to 255. (julat alamat IP kelas E bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
Exp: 243.76.76.8
TCP/IP ClassesCont
TCP/IP addressingCont
Each IP address is divided into two parts,
the Network ID and Host ID. (Setiap alamat IP
terbahagi kepada 2 bahagian, iaitu Network ID dan Host ID)
There are two ways to read the IP address,

which is binary and decimal. (Ada 2 cara
membaca alamat IP, iaitu cara binari dan decimal)
Binary numbers are represented by

numbers 0 and 1. (Nombor binari diwakili dengan nombor 0
dan 1)
Decimal numbers are represented by 0

to 9. (Nombor Decimal diwakili dengan nombor 0 sehingga 9)
1. Decimal To Binary Conversion

Divide the decimal number by 2 and take
the balance. (Bahagikan nombor decimal tersebut dengan 2 dan
ambil bakinya)
This process is repeated until the results of

zero. (Proses ini diulang sehingga memberikan hasil kosong)
Binary number is obtained by taking the
balance from the bottom up. (Nombor binary
diperolehi dengan mengambil baki tersebut dari bawah ke atas)
Binary
A binary code is any system of representing text or
computer processor instructions by the use of the
binary number system's two-binary digits "0" and "1".
This is accomplished by assigning a number to each
particular symbol or instruction.
A binary string of eight digits (bits), for example, can
represent any of 256 possible values and can therefore
correspond to a variety of different symbols, letters or
instructions.
In the 8-bit ASCII code, a lowercase "a" is represented by
the bit string 01100001.
1. Decimal To Binary Conversion

Cont
Example:
5310 => 53 / 2 = 26 balance 1
26 / 2 = 13 balance 0
13 / 2 = 6 balance 1
6 / 2 = 3 balance 0
3 / 2 = 1 balance 1
1 / 2 = 0 balance 1
= 1101012 (6 bit)
= 001101012 (8 bit)
2. Binary To Decimal Conversion

Multiply each bit in binary number with
weights (2). (Darabkan setiap bit dalam nombor binary dengan
pemberat(2))
Sum of all the product.
(Jumlahkan kesemua hasil darab)
Decimal number that is required is the

sum of the product. (Nombor decimal yang dikehendaki
adalah jumlah hasil darab tersebut)
1. Binary To Decimal Conversion

Cont
Example:
a)
1110012 (6 bit)
(1x25) + (1x24) + (1x23) + (0x22) + (0x21) +
(1x20)
32 + 16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1
5710
b)
000110102 (8 bit)
24 + 23 + 21
16 + 8 + 2
2610
EXERCISE
Binary to decimal
00011011.00100001.00101010.000011
11
00000110.00010101.00001110.000010
10
Jawapan:
00001100.00011000.00000001.001110
00 27.33.42.15
6.21.14.10
12.24.1.56
EXERCISE
Decimal to binary
56.78.100.121
127.3.44.8
192.168.67.10
Jawapan:
00111000.01001110.01100100.01111001
01111111.00000011.00101100.00001000
11000000.10101000.01000011.00001010
Dotted Decimal Notation

Dot-decimal notation is a method of writing
binary numbers in octet grouped base-10 (
decimal) numbers separated by dots (full stops
).
IPv4 addresses are almost universally presented
in dot-decimal notation (see illustration).
For example, the hexadecimal number
0xFF000000 is expressed in dot-decimal
notation as 255.0.0.0.

If leading zeros are added to the decimal
numbers, some utility programs interpret
them as octal numbers rather than decimal
numbers.
For example, 022.101.31.153 would be
interpreted as 18.101.31.153 in decimal
notation.
Subnet Mask
Subnet is a calculation mechanism that

used in the network system for breaking
the network into classes of IP addresses
for security purposes and distribution of
working groups. (SUBNET ialah satu mekanisma pengiraan
yang digunakan dalam sistem rangkaian bagi memecahkan rangkaian

dalam kelas-kelas IP address bagi tujuan keselamatan dan pembahagian
kumpulan-kumpulan kerja)
Also used to distinguish the network ID

and host ID. (Juga digunakan untuk membezakan network ID dan
host ID)
IP class A 255.0.0.0
IP class B 255.255.0.0
IP class C 255.255.255.0
FE Dis 2014: define
Public & Private IP Address
Public
any IP address that is not in any of the private
networking schemes and is routable on the Internet.
Private
There are some specific address in each class of IP
addresses that can not be used because each packet
with this destination address will not be continued on the
Internet.
(Terdapat beberapa alamat tertentu dalam setiap kelas IP address yang

tidak dapat digunakan karena setiap paket dengan alamat tujuan ini tidak akan
diteruskan di internet)
Private addresses can be used by the host using the

network the address translation (NAT), or a proxy server
to connected to a public network; or by the host that not
connected to the Internet. (Private addresses dapat digunakan oleh host
yang menggunakan network address translation (NAT), atau sebuah proxy server,
untuk terhubung ke sebuah public network; atau oleh host yang sama sekali tidak
terhubung ke Internet)
2.4.3
Form of IP Addressing
Unicast
It normally refers to a single sender or a single receiver,
and can be used for both sending and receiving. (Biasanya merujuk
pada satu penghantar atau penerima tunggal, dan boleh digunakan untuk kedua-dua menghantar dan
menerima)
Some individual PCs have several distinct unicast

addresses, each for its own distinct purpose. (Beberapa PC individu
mempunyai beberapa alamat Unicast yang berbeza, setiapnya untuk tujuan yang berbeza)
Sending the same data to multiple unicast addresses

requires the sender to send all the data many times over,
once for each recipient. (Menghantar data yang sama untuk beberapa alamat Unicast
menghendaki penghantar untuk menghantar semua data berkali-kali, sekali untuk setiap penerima)
Figure : Illustration of Unicast
Form of IP AddressingCont
Broadcast
to send data to all possible destinations ("all-hosts
broadcast"), which permits the sender to send the
data only once, and all receivers receive a copy of it.
(untuk menghantar data ke semua destinasi yang mungkin ("semua-host siaran"), yang membolehkan
penghantar untuk menghantar data hanya sekali, dan semua penerima menerima salinannya)
In addition, a directed (limited) broadcast can be

made by combining the network prefix with a host
suffix composed entirely of binary 1s.
For example, the destination address used for a
directed broadcast to devices on the 192.0.2.0/24
network is 192.0.2.255.
Figure : Illustration of Broadcast
Form of IP AddressingCont
Multicast
A multicast address is associated with a group of
interested receivers. (Alamat Multicast adalah berkaitan dengan
sekumpulan penerima)
The sender sends a single datagram (from the

sender's unicast address) to the multicast address,
and the intermediary routers take care of making
copies and sending them to all receivers that have
registered their interest in data from that sender.
(Penghantar menghantar datagram tunggal (dari alamat penghantar Unicast) ke alamat
Multicast, dan router perantara mengurus dalam membuat salinan dan menghantarnya
kepada semua penerima yang telah berdaftar untuk mendapatkan data dari penghantar
itu)
Figure : Illustration of Multicast
How IP Addresses are obtained
Static
IP address manually assigned to a device.
(Alamat IP
ditentukan secara manual kepada peranti)
manageable for small networks.
(diuruskan untuk rangkaian
yang kecil)
requires careful checks to avoid IP conflict.

(memerlukan pemeriksaan yang teliti untuk mengelakkan konflik IP)
Dynamic
IP address automatically assigned by server
when host boots. (Alamat IP ditentukan secara automatik oleh server
apabila hos dibootkan)
derived automatically from a range of addresses.

(diturunkan secara automatik dari julat alamat)
2.4.4
TCP/IP addressingCont
Static IP address - configuration IP
address does not change when a dial-up
connection to the Internet is done. (konfigurasi
IP address yg tidak bertukar setiap kali sambungan dialup ke internet
dibuat)
Dynamic IP address - configuration IP

address is exchange when a dialup
connection to the Internet is done. (konfigurasi
IP address yg bertukar-tukar setiap kali sambungan dialup ke internet
dibuat)
Dynamic IP address will be given each time

you login (should have DHCP server). (IP
address secara dinamik akan diberi setiap kali anda login(perlu ada
server DHCP))
Current IP information of a
workstation
STEP 1: Go to Start > All Programs >

Accessories > Command Prompt. This
opens the Command Prompt.
Alternatively, go to Start > Run, type "cmd,"

and press OK.
Current IP information of a
workstation
STEP 2: In the Command Prompt window,

type "ipconfig" and press Enter. This will
bring up your IP address, DNS address, and
other information about your internet
connection.
STEP 3: Find your IP address among the
information provided.
DHCP
DHCP, Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, is a

communications protocol that dynamically
assigns unique IP addresses to network devices.
As a network device joins or leaves an IP-based

network, DHCP automatically renews or releases
an IP address.
DHCP runs in a client/server mode, where server

sets up a pool of available IP addresses for a
network.
A DHCP server also provides network gateway,

subnet masks, name server addresses and
amount of time ("lease") that a given IP address
will be valid.
DHCP (2)
A DHCP client retrieve those parameters

and use them to join the existing network.
DHCP allows network administrators

centrally manage and automate the
assignment of the IP addresses without
having to worry about assigning duplicate
addresses, making network administration
a lot easier to manage.
DHCP (3)
Depending on implementation, the DHCP

server may have three methods of allocating
IP-addresses:
dynamic allocation: A network administrator

assigns a range of IP addresses to DHCP, and
each client computer on the LAN has its IP
software configured to request an IP address from
the DHCP server during network initialization.
automatic allocation: The DHCP server
permanently assigns a free IP address to a
requesting client from the range defined by the
administrator.
static allocation: The DHCP server allocates an
IP address based on a table with MAC address/
IP address pairs, which are manually filled in
(perhaps by a network administrator).
Reasons to Use DHCP
Saves time spent assigning IP addresses

Prevents accidental duplicate IP addresses
Allows users to move devices (like laptops)
without having to change their TCP/IP
configuration
DHCP Leasing Process
Device borrows (leases) IP address

Devices use IP address temporarily
Specified time limit
Lease time
Determine when client obtains IP
address at log on
User may force lease termination
DHCP service configuration

Specify leased address range
Configure lease duration
DHCP Leasing Process
Figure : Several steps to negotiate clients first lease
Terminating a DHCP Lease
Lease expiration
Automatic
Established in server configuration

Manually terminated at any time
Clients TCP/IP configuration
Servers DHCP configuration
Circumstances requiring lease termination

DHCP server fails and replaced
Windows: release of TCP/IP settings
DHCP services run on several server types
Installation and configurations vary
2.7 Analyze a computer

network transmission
Software for network

analysis
Command prompt
Using Task manager in window
www.wireshark.org
Capsa Free from Colasoft
Microsoft Network Monitor
Nagios
OpenNMS
Advanced IP Scanner
Fiddler
NetworkMiner
And so on (just google it!)
Using : Task manager

Start Task manager (right click taskbar and choose Task manager)
Switch to the "Performance" tab
Click "Open Resource Monitor" at the bottom.
(or)
Press Win+R and type resmon
Expand the "Network" section and wait for it to update.

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Noted prepared by:

2.1 Know network

THE OSI MODEL

Dollah Naik Teksi Supaya Pulang Awal

7 LAYERS OF THE OSI

k Darwisy Naik Tangga Sekat2 Pahtu Apa

Data travel down the layer in the sending device.

The OSI Network Model

Physical Layer - The actual hardware.

LAYER 7 : APPLICATION LAYER

LAYER 6 : PRESENTATION LAYER

The presentation layer is primarily

LAYER 6 : PRESENTATION LAYER

LAYER 5 : SESSION LAYER

Establish, maintain and terminates

LAYER 4 : TRANSPORT LAYER

Manipulate data and prepare it for delivery

LAYER 4 : TRANSPORT LAYER

LAYER 3 : NETWORK LAYER

Network layer protocols provide two important

LAYER 2 : DATA LINK LAYER

LAYER 1 : PHYSICAL LAYER

What basically happens when data passes from Host A to

At the network layer, a network header is

The packet from the network layer is then

Finally, the physical layer provides a service to

Example of how the OSI Layers work using

E-mail sent from

Identify sender and intended receiver; is

Encode data with X coding

Make sure all data is sent

Identified sender and intended

A small chunk of data transmitted over the Internet.

DATA LINK LAYER

IEEE 802, ISDN

2.2 Local Wired

MAC address of a host using

MAC addresses are 6-byte (48-bits) in length, and are

MAC address of a host using

MAC address of a host using

MAC address of a host using

MAC address of a host using

MAC address of a host using

MAC address of a host using

MAC address of a host using

Standard IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame

802.3 is a technology that supports the IEEE 802.1

Standard IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame

(46 to 1500 bytes)

(46 to 1500 bytes)

Preambleused for synchronizing receiver to

Logical Link Control (LLC)Governs the assembly of data at the

Pad0 bits added to the data field if

Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC)an algorthm

Indicate logical address of a

Prepare IP address of a computer

Dotted Decimals (2)

Class A first bit must start with 0.

The first bit must be 0 refers to the eight

IP class A from 0 to 127 BUT the value 0 is

2 initial bits is 10 (from right), referring to

class B IP address range starting from 128