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by Sedra and Smith
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Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
Introduction
Introduction
4.1.1. CurrentVoltage
Characteristic of
the Ideal Diode
ideal diode most
fundament nonlinear
circuit element
two terminal device
circuit symbol
shown to right
operates in two
modes
on and off
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
4.1.1. CurrentVoltage
Characteristic
cathode negative terminal, from
which current flows
anode positive terminal of diode, into
which current flows
voltage-current (VI) behavior is:
piecewise linear for rated values
nonlinear beyond this range
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
4.1.1: Current-Voltage
Characteristic of the
Ideal Diodemode #2:
reverse bias
= open ckt.
ideal diode: is most
devicenonlinear circuit
fundament
element
symbol with
two
two nodes
terminal device with
mode #1:
forward bias
= short ckt
figure 4.1.
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
4.1.1. CurrentVoltage
Characteristic
External circuit should
be designed to limit
current flow across
conducting diode
voltage across
blocking diode
Examples are shown
to right
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
4.1.2: A Simple
Application
The Rectifier
One fundamental
application of this
piecewise linear
behavior is the
rectifier.
Q: What is a
rectifier?
A: Circuit which
converts AC waves
in to DCideally
with no loss.
4.1.2: A Simple
Application
The Rectifier
This circuit is
composed of diode
and series resistor.
Q: How does this
circuit operate?
A: The diode
blocks reverse
current flow,
preventing
negative voltage
across R.
Example 4.1:
Diode Rectifier
Consider the circuit of Figure
4.4. A source (vS) with peak
amplitude of 24V is
employed to charge a 12V
dc-battery.
Q(a): Find the fraction of
each cycle during which
the diode conducts.
Q(b): Find peak value of
diode current and
maximum reverse-bias
voltage that appears
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Microelectronic
Circuits
by Adel
S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
across
the
diode.
Smith (0195323033)
4.1.3. Another
Application,
Diode Logic
Gates
Q: How may diodes
be used to create
logic gates?
A: Examples of
AND / OR gates
are shown right.
Refer to next
slide.
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Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
OR GATE
AND GATE
IF vA = 5V THEN
diodeA will conduct
AND vY = vA = 5V
IF vA = 0V THEN
diodeA will conduct
AND vY = vA = 0V
IF all diodes
block THEN vY =
5V
+
5
V-
IF any diode
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conducts
THEN
Microelectronic
Circuits
by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
+
5
V
-
Example 4.2:
More Diodes
Example 4.2:
More Diodes
Q: How does one solve these circuits?
A: One must use the following steps
1) assume the status of all diodes
2) solve via mesh / nodal analysis
3) check for coherence
4.2. Terminal
Characteristics
of Junction
Diodes
Most common
implementation of a
diode utilizes pn
junction.
I-V curve consists of
three characteristic
regions
forward bias: v > 0
reverse bias: v < 0
breakdown: v << 0
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
discontinuity caused
by differences in scale
4.2.1. The
Forward-Bias
Region
The forward-bias
region of operation
is entered when v
> 0.
I-V relationship is
closely
approximated by
equations
(4.3) istoaright.
simplification
6 4 4 47 4 4 48
(eq4.1) i IS(ev/ VT 1)
VT thermal voltage
k Boltzmann's constant (8.62E-5 eV/K)
q magnitude of electron charge (1.6E-19 C)
6 4 4 4 4 7 4 4 4 48
kT
(eq4.2) VT
25.8
mV
14
2
43
q at room
temperature
6447448
(eq4.3) i ISev / VT
4.2.1. The
Forward-Bias
Region
Equation (4.3)
may be reversed
to yield (4.4).
This relationship
applies over as
many as seven
decades of
current.
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
6 4 44 7 4 4 48
i
(eq4.4) v VTln
IS
4.2.1. The
Forward-Bias
Region
Q: What is the
relative effect of
current flow (i) on
forward biasing
voltage (v)?
A: Very small.
10x change in i,
effects 60mV
change in v.
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
6 47 48
V2 / VT
I
e
I2
S V1 / VT
I1 ISe
6 44 7 4 48
I2
e(V2V1 )/ VT
I1
4.2.1: The
Forward-Bias
Region
cut-in voltage is
voltage, below which,
minimal current flows
approximately 0.5V
fully conducting
region is region in
which Rdiode is
approximately equal 0
between 0.6 and 0.8V
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
fully conducting
Example 4.3
Refer to textbook
4.2.2. The
Reverse-Bias
Region
The reverse-bias
region of operation is
entered when v < 0.
I-V relationship, for
negative voltages
with |v| > VT (25mV),
is closely
approximated by
equations to right.
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
this expression
applies for
negative voltages
64748
v / VT
i ISe
action: invert exponential
6 44 7 4 48
1
i IS v / V
T
14e2 43
0 for larger
voltage
magnitudes
i IS
4.2.2. The
Reverse-Bias
Region
A real diode exhibits reverse-bias
current, although small, much larger
than IS .
10-9 vs. 10-14Amps
A large part of this reverse current is
attributed to leakage effects.
4.2.3. The
Breakdown
Region
The breakdown
region of operation
is entered when v
< VZK.
Zener-Knee
Voltage (VZK)
This is normally
non-destructive.
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
breakdown region
i IS(e
v / VT
i IS
v / VT
i ISe
V=
10VT
V = -VT
V=
-VZK
i IS
1)
4.3. Modeling
the Diode
Forward
Characteristic
The previous slides define a robust set of diode
models.
Upcoming slides, however, discuss simplified
diode models better suited for use in circuit
analyses:
exponential model
constant voltage-drop model
ideal diode model
small-signal (linearization) model
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
4.3.1. The
Exponential
Model
exponential diode model
most accurate
most difficult to employ in circuit
analysis
due to nonlinear nature
(eq4.6) ID ISeVD / VT
1 4 44 2 4 4 43
VD voltage across diode
ID current through diode
4.3.1. The
Exponential
Model
Q: How does one solve
for ID in circuit to right?
VDD = 5V
R = 1kOhm
ID = 1mA @ 0.7V
A: Two methods exist
graphical method
iterative method
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Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
VDD VD
(eq4.7) ID
R
Graphical
Analysis Using
Exponential
Model
step #1: Plot the
relationships of (4.6)
and (4.7) on single
graph
step #2: Find
intersection of the two
load line and diode
characteristic
intersect at
operating point
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
Graphical
Analysis Using
Exponential
Model
Pros
Intuitive
b/c of visual nature
Cons
Poor Precision
Not Practical for
Complex Analyses
multiple lines
required
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
4.3.3. Iterative
Analysis Using
Exponential
Method
step #1: Start with
initial guess of VD.
VD(0)
step #2: Use nodal /
mesh analysis to solve ID.
step #3: Use
exponential model to
update VD.
VD(1) = f(VD(0))
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
4.3.3. Iterative
Analysis Using
Exponential
Method
Pros
High Precision
Cons
Not Intuitive
Not Practical for Complex Analyses
10+ iterations may be required
4.3. Modeling
the Diode
Forward
Characteristic
Q: How can one
analyze these diodebased circuits more
efficiently?
A: Find a simpler
model.
One example is
assume that voltage
drop across the diode
is constant.
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
4.3.5. The
Constant
Voltage-Drop
Model
The constant voltagedrop diode model
assumes that the slope
of ID vs. VD is vertical @
0.7V
Q: How does example
4.4 solution change if
CVDM is used?
A: 4.262mA to 4.3mA
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Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
Figure 4.12:
Development of the diode
constant-voltage-drop
model: (a) the
4.3.6. Ideal
Diode Model
The ideal diode
model assumes that
the slope of ID vs. VD is
vertical @ 0V
Q: How does example
4.4 solution change if
ideal model is used?
A: 4.262mA to 5mA
4.1.1: Current-Voltage
Characteristic of the
Ideal Diodemode #2:
reverse bias
= open ckt.
ideal diode: is most
devicenonlinear circuit
fundament
element
symbol with
two
two nodes
terminal device with
mode #1:
forward bias
= short ckt
figure 4.1.
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
When to
use these
models?
exponential model
low voltages
less complex circuits
emphasis on accuracy
over practicality
constant voltage-drop
mode:
medium voltages = 0.7V
more complex circuits
emphasis on practicality
over accuracy
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Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
Neither of these
circuits employ the
exponential model
simplifying the
solving
process.
Q: How is the small-signal
diode model
defined?
A: The total instantaneous circuit is
divided into steady-state and time varying
components, which may be analyzed
separately and solved via algebra.
CVDM
DC
Total
Instantaneo
AC
us Solution
(vD.)
DC
SteadyState
Solution
(VD.)
TimeAC
Varying
Solution
(vd.)
Figure 4.14: (a) Circuit for Example 4.5. (b) Circuit
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Microelectronic
Circuits by Adel S.
Sedra dc
and Kenneth
C.
for calculating
the
operating
point. (c) Small-signal
Smith (0195323033)
(eq4.8) ID ISeVD / VT
(eq4.9) vD(t) VD vd (t)
1 4 4 2 4 43
vD (t ) total instantaneous
voltage across diode
VD dc component
of vD (t )
vd (t ) time varying
component of vD (t )
6 4 44 7 4 4 48
(eq4.11) iD(t) ISeVD / VT evd / VT
123
ID
x2 x3 x4
example: e 1 x K
2! 3! 4!
x
6 4 are
4 assumed
4 44to7be4negligible
4 4 4 48
2
3
vd vd 1 vd 1
(eq4.12a) iD(t) ID 1
K
V
V
2
!
V
3!
T
T
T
1 4 4 4 4 4 44 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 43
power series expansion of evd / VT
action: eliminate
negligible terms
64 47 448
v
(eq4.14) iD(t) ID 1 d
VT
ID
iD(t) ID vd
14V2
T
43
id
iD(t) ID id
1
id vd
rd
VT
rd
ID
x
yY
64 7x 48
x(t) x0
VT
rd
ID
Example 4.5:
Small-Signal
Model
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 4.14(a)
for the case in which R = 10kOhm.
The power supply V+ has a dc value of 10V
over which is super-imposed a 60Hz sinusoid
of 1V peak amplitude (known as the supply
ripple)
Q: Calculate both amplitude of the sinewave signal observed across the diode.
A: vd.(peak) = 2.68mV
Assume diode to have 0.7V drop at 1mA
current.
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Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
Figure 4.14: (a) circuit for Example 4.5. (b) circuit for
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic
Circuits by Adel
S. Sedra
Kenneth C.
calculating
the
dcandoperating
point. (c) small-signal
Smith (0195323033)
Diode Forward
Drop in
Voltage
Regulation
Q: What is a
voltage regulator?
A: Circuit whose
voltage output
remains stable in
spite of changes in
supply and load.
Q: What
characteristic of the
diode facilitates
voltage regulation?
A: The
approximately
constant voltage
drop across it
(0.7V).
Example 4.6:
Diode-Based
Voltage
Regulator
Consider circuit shown in Figure
4.15. A string of three diodes is
used to provide a constant
voltage of 2.1V.
Q: What is the change in this
regulated voltage caused by
(a) a +/- 10% change in supply
voltage and (b) connection of
1kOhm load resistor.
Figure 4.15:
Circuit for
Example 4.6.
4.4. Operation in
the Reverse
Breakdown Region
Zener Diodes
Under certain circumstances, diodes
may be intentionally used in the
reverse breakdown region.
These are referred to as Zener Diodes.
4.5. Rectifier
Circuits
One important
application of diode
is the rectifier
Electrical device
which converts
alternating current
(AC) to direct
current (DC)
One important
application of
rectifier is dc power
supply.
4.5.1. The
Half-Wave
Rectifier
half-wave rectifier
utilizes only
alternate half-cycles
of the input sinusoid
Constant voltage
drop diode model
is employed.
Figure 4.21: (a) Half-wave rectifier (b) Transfer
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characteristic
of the rectifier circuit (c) Input and output
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
4.5.1. The
Half-Wave
Rectifier
exponential model? It is possible to use the
diode exponential model in describing
rectifier operation; however, this requires too
much work.
small inputs? Regardless of the model
employed, one should note that the rectifier
will not operate properly when input voltage
is small (< 1V).
Those cases require a precision rectifier.
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
4.5.2. The
Full-Wave
Rectifier
Q: How does fullwave rectifier differ
from half-wave?
A: It utilizes both
halves of the
input
One potential is
shown to right.
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Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
4.5.3. The
Bridge
Rectifier
An alternative
implementation of
the full-wave
rectifier is bridge
rectifier.
Shown to right.
Figure 4.23: The bridge
rectifier circuit.
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Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
4.5.3: The
Bridge
Rectifier (BR)
Q: What is the main advantage of BR?
A: No need for center-tapped
transformer.
Q: What is main disadvantage?
A: Series connection of TWO diodes
will reduce output voltage.
PIV = VS VD
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Smith (0195323033)
4.5.4. The
Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor
Pulsating nature
of rectifier output
makes unreliable
dc supply.
As such, a filter
capacitor is
employed to
Figure 4.24:
(a) A simple circuit used to illustrate
remove
ripple.
the effect of a filter capacitor. (b) input and output
Oxford University Publishing
waveforms assuming an ideal diode.
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
4.5.4. The
Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor
step #1: source voltage is
positive, diode is forward
biased, capacitor charges.
step #2: source voltage is
reverse, diode is reversebiased (blocking),
capacitor cannot
discharge.
step #3: source voltage is
positive, diode is forward
biased, capacitor charges
(maintains voltage).
4.5.4. The
Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor
Q: Why is this example unrealistic?
A: Because for any practical
application, the converter would
supply a load (which in turn provides
a path for capacitor discharging).
4.5.4. The
Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor
Q: What happens
when load
resistor is placed
in series with
capacitor?
A: One must now
consider the
discharging of
capacitor across
load.
4.5.4. The
Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor
The textbook
outlines how
Laplace Transform
may be used to
define behavior
output voltage for state #1
6
447448
below.
vO t vI t vD
circuit state
#1
t
RC
vO t Vpeake
1 4 42 4 43
circuit state
#2
Q: What happens
when load resistor is
placed in series with
capacitor?
circuit state #1
vO
iL
R
iD iC iL
action: define capacitor
current differentially
6 44 7 4 48
dvI
iD C
iL
dt
Q: What happens
when load resistor is
placed in series with
capacitor?
6 4 7 48
vO vI vD
circuit state #1
Q: What happens
when load resistor is
placed in series with
capacitor?
circuit state #2
Q: What happens
when load resistor is
placed in series with
capacitor?
4.5.4. The
Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor
vO RiL
action: replace
iL with -iC
64 7 48
vO RiC
action: define iC
differentially
6 4 4 7 4 48
dvO
vO R C
14 2dt43
iC
6 action
4 4: change
7 4 sides
48
dv
vO RC O 0
dt
L vO RC O 0
dt
6 4 4 action
4 4: take
4 Laplace
7 4 transform
44448
VO s RC sVO s VO 0 0
1442443
transform of
dvO
dt
1RCs VO (s)
initial
condition
RCPublishing
s VO (s)
Oxford University
RC
6 4action
4 :4eliminate
44 7RC4from4both
4 sides
4 48
1
RC s VO s RCVO 0
RC
: solve for VO s
6 4action
44
7 4 4 48
1
VO s VO 0
1
s
RC
Laplace
6 4 4 action
4 4: take
4 7inverse
44
4 4 48
1
1
L VO s VO 0
s 1/ RC
6 4 4 action
4 7: solve
4 4 48
vO t VO 0 e
t
RC
4.5.4. The
Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor
Q: What is VO(0)?
A: Peak of vI, because the transition
between state #1 and state #2 (aka.
diode begins blocking) approximately
as vI drops below vC.
4.5.4. The
Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor
step #7: Define
output voltage for
states #1 and #2.
circuit state
#1
t
RC
vO t Vpeake
1 4 42 4 43
circuit state
#2
6 44 7 4 48
vO t vI t
t
RC
vO t Vpeake
1 4 42 4 43
A Couple of
Observations
The diode conducts for a brief interval (t) near the
peak of the input sinusoid and supplies the capacitor
with charge equal to that lost during the much longer
discharge interval. The latter is approximately equal
to T.
Assuming an ideal diode, the diode conduction
begins at time t1 (at which the input vI equals the
exponentially decaying output vO). Diode conduction
stops at time t2 shortly after the peak of vI (the exact
value of t2 is determined by settling of ID).
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
A Couple of
Observations
During the diode off-interval, the capacitor C
discharges through R causing an exponential decay
in the output voltage (vO). At the end of the
discharge interval, which lasts for almost the entire
period T, voltage output is defined as follows vO(T)
= Vpeak Vr.
When the ripple voltage (Vr) is small, the output (vO)
is almost constant and equal to the peak of the
input (vI). the average output voltage may be
defined as below
1
4.5.4. The
Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor
Q: How is ripple voltage (Vr)
defined?
step #1: Begin with transient
response of output during off
interval.
step #2: Note T is discharge
interval.
step #3: Simplify using
assumption that RC >> T.
step #4: Solve for ripple
voltage Vr.
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
vO t Vpeake
t
RC
is discharge interval
6T 4
4 7 4 48
Vpeak Vr vO (T)
T
RC
Vpeak Vr Vpeak e
1 2 3
because RCT ,
we can assume...
T
T
RC
e
1
RC
6 44 7 4 48
T
(eq4.28) Vr Vpeak
RC
{
1
T
1
RC
4.5.4. The
Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor
step #5: Put expression
in terms of frequency (f =
Vpeak
1/T).
}R
Observe that, as long as
Vpeak
IL
(eq4.29) Vr
Q: How is
conduction
interval (t)
defined?
step #1: Assume that
diode conduction stops
(very close to when) vI
approaches its peak.
step #2: With this
assumption, one may
define expression to
the right.
step #3: Solve for t.
Oxford University Publishing
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Smith (0195323033)
cos(0O)
Vpeakcos t Vpeak Vr
1 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 43
note that peak of vI represents cos(0O ),
therefore cos t represents variation
around this value
4.5.4. The
Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor
Q: How is peak-topeak ripple (Vr)
defined?
A: (4.29)
Q: How is the
conduction interval
(t) defined?
A: (4.30)
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
Vpeak
}R
Vpeak
IL
(eq4.29) Vr
fRC fC
4.5.4. The
Rectifier
with a Filter
Capacitor
precision rectifier is a device which
facilitates rectification of low-voltage
input waveforms.
4.6: Limiting
and
Clamping
Circuits
Q: What is a
limiter circuit?
A: One which
limits voltage
output.
4.6. Limiting
and
Clamping
Circuits
}
KvI
vO
constant
1 4 44 2 value(s)
4 4 43
K<1
vI
L
K
examples include
vI
L
in bi-polar manner
K
4.6. Limiting
and
Clamping
Circuits
soft vs. hard
limiter
single limiters
employ one
diode
double
limiters
employ two
diodes of
opposite
linear range
polarity
may be
controlled via
string of
diodes and dc
zener diodes
sources
may be used
to implement
soft limiting
4.6.2. The
Clamped
Capacitor or
DC Restorer
Q: What is a dc restorer?
A: Circuit which removes the
dc component of an AC
wave.
Q: Why is this ability
important?
A: Average value of this
output (w/ dc = 0) is
Figure 4.32: The
effective way to measure
clamped capacitor or
duty cycle
dc restorer with a
square-wave input
Oxford University Publishing
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
and no load
4.6.3: The
Voltage
Doubler
Q: What is a
voltage doubler?
A: One which
multiplies the
amplitude of a
wave or signal
by two.
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Smith (0195323033)
Summary (1)
Summary (2)
Summary (3)
Summary (4)
Summary (5)
Summary (6)
Summary (6)