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Chapter 11 - 1
Ferrous
Steels
Steels
<1.4wt%C
<1.4
wt% C
Nonferrous
Cast Irons
Cast
Irons
3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5
wt% C
microstructure: ferrite,
graphite/cementite
T(C)
1600
1400
1200
austenite
+L
4.30
600
400
0
(Fe)
L+Fe3C
1148C
1000
800
ferrite
727C
Eutectoid:
0.76
Eutectic:
+Fe3C
Fe3C
cementite
+Fe3C
3
Co , wt% C
6.7
Chapter 11 - 2
Steels
High Alloy
Low Alloy
low carbon Med carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C
high carbon
0.6-1.4 wt% C
heat
plain
treatable
Cr,V
Cr, Ni
Additions none
none
none
Ni, Mo
Mo
Example 1010 4310
1040
4340 1095
Hardenability 0
+
+
++
++
TS
0
+
++
+
EL
+
+
0
Name
plain
Uses
auto
struc.
sheet
HSLA
bridges
towers
press.
vessels
plain
crank
shafts
bolts
hammers
blades
pistons
gears
wear
applic.
wear
applic.
tool
Cr, V,
Mo, W
4190
+++
++
-drills
saws
dies
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
stainless
Cr, Ni, Mo
304, 409
varies
varies
++
high T
applic.
turbines
furnaces
Very corros.
resistant
Chapter 11 - 3
gas
refractory
vessel
layers of coke
and iron ore
air
slag
Molten iron
Limestone
BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
C+O2 CO2
reduction of iron ore to metal
CO2 + C 2CO
3CO + Fe2O3 2Fe+3CO2
purification
CaCO3 CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3 slag
Chapter 11 - 4
Ferrous Alloys
Iron-based alloys
Steels
Cast Irons
Nomenclature for steels (AISI/SAE)
10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (1.00 - 1.65%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.40 - 0.90%), Mo (0.20 - 0.30%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)
where xx is wt% C x 100
example: 1060 steel plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C
Stainless Steel >11% Cr
Chapter 11 - 5
Cast Irons
Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt% C
Low melting relatively easy to cast
Generally brittle
Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite
Fe3C 3 Fe () + C (graphite)
generally a slow process
Chapter 11 - 6
Graphite formation
promoted by
1400
Si > 1 wt%
1200
slow cooling
Austenite
Liquid +
Graphite
+L
1153C
4.2 wt% C
1000
+ Graphite
800
740C
0.65
600
Adapted from Fig. 11.2,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
[Fig. 11.2 adapted from
Binary Alloy Phase
Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.in-Chief), ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1990.]
400
(Fe)
+ Graphite
0
90
C, wt% C
Chapter 11 - 7
100
Gray iron
graphite flakes
weak & brittle in tension
stronger in compression
excellent vibrational dampening
wear resistant
Ductile iron
add Mg and/or Ce
graphite as nodules not flakes
matrix often pearlite stronger
but less ductile
Chapter 11 - 8
Malleable iron
heat treat white iron at 800-900C
graphite in rosettes
reasonably strong and ductile
Chapter 11 - 9
Chapter 11 - 10
Chapter 11 - 11
Chapter 11 - 12
Chapter 11 - 13
Chapter 11 - 14
Chapter 11 - 15
Nonferrous Alloys
Cu Alloys
Al Alloys
Ti Alloys
Refractory metals
-relatively low : 4.5 g/cm3
-high melting Ts
vs 7.9 for steel
Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high Ts -Ag, Au, Pt
-oxid./corr. resistant
-space applic.
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
Chapter 11 - 16
Metal Fabrication
How do we fabricate metals?
Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
Cast molten metal into mold
Forming Operations
Rough stock formed to final shape
Hot working
vs.
Deformation temperature
high enough for
recrystallization
Large deformations
Cold working
Deformation below
recrystallization
temperature
Strain hardening occurs
Small deformations
Chapter 11 - 17
CASTING
MISCELLANEOUS
die
A o blank
A d often at
elev. T
Drawing
force
Ao
die
Ad
roll
Extrusion
Ao
(rods, tubing)
Ao
tensile
force
Ad
force
container
ram
billet
Adapted from
Fig. 11.8,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
die holder
extrusion
Ad
die
ductile metals, e.g. Cu,
Al (hot)
Chapter 11 - 18
container
CASTING
MISCELLANEOUS
Chapter 11 - 19
CASTING
MISCELLANEOUS
Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
auto engine blocks)
Sand
Sand
molten metal
Chapter 11 - 20
CASTING
MISCELLANEOUS
Investment Casting
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
Stage I Mold formed by pouring
plaster of paris around wax pattern.
wax
II
III
Chapter 11 - 21
CASTING
Die Casting
-- high volume
-- for alloys having low melting
temperatures
MISCELLANEOUS
Continuous Casting
-- simple shapes
(e.g., rectangular slabs,
cylinders)
molten
solidified
Chapter 11 - 22
Chapter 11 - 23
Chapter 11 - 24
CASTING
Powder Metallurgy
(metals w/low ductilities)
pressure
MISCELLANEOUS
Welding
(when fabrication of one large
part is impractical)
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
area
contact
densify
unaffected
piece 1
heat-affected zone
unaffected
Adapted from Fig.
piece 2
11.9, Callister &
Heat-affected zone:
point contact
at low T
densification
by diffusion at
higher T
Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 11.9 from Iron
Castings
Handbook, C.F.
Walton and T.J.
Opar (Ed.), 1981.)
Chapter 11 - 25
Spheroidize (steels):
Types of
Annealing
Process Anneal:
Negate effects of
cold working by
(recovery/
recrystallization)
b) Quenching
c) Tempering
(Tempered
Martensite)
A
0%
50
10
0%
Fig. 10.25,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
b)
a)
c)
Chapter 11 - 27
Hardenability -- Steels
Hardenability measure of the ability to form martensite
Jominy end quench test used to measure hardenability.
specimen
(heated to
phase field)
24C water
flat ground
Rockwell C
hardness tests
Hardness, HRC
T(C)
600
0%
100%
400
200
M(start)
A M
0.1
10
te a
rli Pe
lite ea +
a r P i te
Pe ine ens
F
t
a r i te
M en s
t
ar
M
0 M(finish)
100
1000
te
rl i
Time (s)
Chapter 11 - 29
10
60
Hardness, HRC
100
50
8640
20
40
4140
10
"Alloy Steels"
80 %M
4340
40
5140
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)
800
T(C)
600
TE
A
400
200
0 -1
10
10
B
M(start)
M(90%)
103 105 Time (s)
Chapter 11 - 30
Severity of Quench
low
moderate
high
Hardness
low
moderate
high
Cooling rate
low
high
Hardness
low
high
Chapter 11 - 31
Precipitation Hardening
Particles impede dislocation motion.
700
Ex: Al-Cu system
T(C)
Procedure:
600
+L
-- Pt A: solution heat treat
(get solid solution)
-- Pt B: quench to room temp.
(retain solid solution)
-- Pt C: reheat to nucleate
small particles within
phase.
500
400
+L
300
0 B 10
(Al)
CuAl2
20
30
40
50
wt% Cu
composition range
available for precipitation hardening
Pt C (precipitate
Pt B
Time
Chapter 11 - 32
2014 Al Alloy:
300
200
100
204C
149C
1min
1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time
%EL (2 in sample)
400
fe
pre wer
ov cip lar
era ita ge
ge tes
d
ma
pre ny s
cip ma
ita ll
ag tes
ed
no
so n-eq
lid uil
so .
lut
ion
Maxima on TS curves.
Increasing T accelerates
process.
30
20
10
0
204C
149C
1min
1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time
Adapted from Fig. 11.27, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 11.27 adapted from Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing
Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979. p. 41.)
Chapter 11 - 33
Summary
Ferrous alloys: steels and cast irons
Non-ferrous alloys:
-- Cu, Al, Ti, and Mg alloys; refractory alloys; and noble metals.
Metal fabrication techniques:
-- forming, casting, miscellaneous.
Hardenability of metals
-- measure of ability of a steel to be heat treated.
-- increases with alloy content.
Precipitation hardening
--hardening, strengthening due to formation of
precipitate particles.
--Al, Mg alloys precipitation hardenable.
Chapter 11 - 34
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:
Core Problems:
Self-help Problems:
Chapter 11 - 35