Geosphere

Plate Tectonics

Theory of
everything!

Geosphere
Compositional structure
Crust
Continental
mostly silicate minerals, Si, Al, Na, K, &
Ca rich
Oceanic
Silicate minerals, Si, Al, Fe & Mg rich

Mantle
Silicate minerals, Si, Fe & Mg rich

Core
Metallic, Fe, Ni + ?S ?O ?Si
Image courtesy of USGS - http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/inside.html

Geosphere
Mechanical structure
Lithosphere
Crust + uppermost Mantle
Rock
Rigid and brittle
Asthenosphere
Ductile - plastic
Extremely viscous fluid lithosphere floats
in it
Mesosphere
Stronger due to higher pressure

Core
Outer liquid

Image courtesy of USGS - http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/inside.html

Geosphere

Geosphere
T&P
increase with
depth
Increase T
rocks melt
Increase P
rocks more
solid

Geosphere
Continental crust ~ 2.7 g/cm3 ~35+km thick
Oceanic crust ~ 3 g/cm3 ~10km thick

Geosphere
1570
Abraham Ortelius

Geosphere
1858
Pelligrini

Geosphere
In the 1900s
Alfred Wegener (1880-1930)
Continental displacement
(1928)

200m isobath good fit

Rock-fossil fit
NO viable mechanism
proposed
poorly received

Ideas NOT accepted

Untimely death 1930

Conventional Dogma
continued until after WWII

drift used by the AAPG

Geosphere
In the 1920s
Improved seismic instrumentation
Identification of several prominent
earthquake zones parallel to deep
sea trenches that typically were
inclined 40-60 from the horizontal
and extended several hundred
kilometres into the Earth
Location and depth data
Wadati-Benioff zones aka Benioff
zones

Geosphere

Geosphere
In 1950s and 60s
Mountainous mid-ocean ridges
Age of sea floor very young near ridges
Older the further from the ridges
Sea-floor sediments much thinner than
expected

On-shore discovery of magnetic field reversals

Preserved in lava flow rocks
Development of a Palaeomagnetic
stratigraphy

Discovery of magnetic field reversals in marine

rocks
Preserved in sea-floor basalts
Palaeomagnetic stratigraphy
sea-floor spreading conveyor belt
Earthquake and volcano maps

Geosphere
Magnetostratigraphy
The Earths magnetic field flips every now and
then

Geosphere
Magnetostratigraphy
Igneous rocks
Sediments
Normal = black
Reversed = white
No pattern
No correlation
with extinctions

Geosphere
Magnetostratigraphy
Normal = black
Reversed = white
the last reversal
happened
786,000 years ago
.. . and took around
100 years!

Geosphere
Magnetostratigraphy
Theory

Observation

Geosphere
Sea-floor spreading

Geosphere
Mid-Ocean Ridge volcanism

Geosphere
Sea-floor ages

Geosphere
Movement vectors

Geosphere
Source of continental rocks?

Geosphere
New paradigm 1965 - 1970

Geosphere
Hot spot volcanism

Geosphere
Plate boundary dynamics

Geosphere
Divergent boundary dynamics
Plates moving apart
New crust from mantle magma
Marine setting
Oceanic basalt
Mid-Ocean Ridges
Sea-floor spreading

Geosphere
Divergent boundary
dynamics
Plates moving apart
New crust from mantle magma
Non marine setting
Rift valley formation
Basaltic
volcanism
Deep basins
New oceans

Geosphere
Convergent boundaries
3 scenarios
Oceanic Continental
Oceanic Oceanic
Continental Continental

Earth is NOT expanding

Subduction provides one solution
Mountain building another!

Geosphere
Convergent boundaries
Oceanic Continental
Ocean lithosphere subducted
under lighter continental
lithosphere
Deep sea trench forms at the
subduction zone
Melting at depth generates
volcanoes on continental margin
Mountain range chain of
volcanoes
The Andes
Earthquakes define Benioff zone

Geosphere
Convergent boundaries
Oceanic Oceanic
Ocean lithosphere subducted under
another slab of oceanic lithosphere
Deep sea trench forms at the subduction
zone
Melting at depth generates submarine
volcanoes
Chain of volcanic islands
Island arcs
Earthquakes define Benioff zone

Geosphere
Convergent boundaries
Continental - Continental
after ocean subducted away
Major mountain building
Both slabs too light to subduct
Massive mountains
High plateaus
Major metamorphism
Earthquakes
Himalayas

Geosphere
Transform fault boundaries
Conservative
Plates sliding past each other
Parts of a plate sliding past each other
Strike-slip

Mostly horizontal

Earthquakes
San Andreas - USA
Alpine Fault
South Island NZ

Geosphere
Plate tectonics

Geosphere
What happens to subducting slabs?

Geosphere
Plate tectonics
Driving force/s?
Original idea = Mantle convection
Hot slushy silicate material
Convecting goo drags slab above by friction

Upwelling at separation point generates spreading

centre intrusion

Forms new crust from mantle materials

Modern ideas = Slab pull

Now considered the major driver

All down hill from the MORidge!

Incorporates convection but cold slab drags plate forward

and down

Geosphere
Plate tectonics
Magnetic orientation
Latitude
Position on the globe
Radiometric dates
Position in time

Palaeogeographic
reconstructions

Questions

Instructions
from Suzy

Get up and
dance!

Plate Tectonics

Theory of
everything!
Part 2

Geosphere
Plate Tectonics explains
Planetary jig saw puzzles
Plates have moved
Continents have moved
Rock distributions
Fossil distributions
Fauna and flora distributions
Palaeoclimates
Global glacial spread

Geosphere
Plate Tectonics explains
Non-randomness of earthquakes
Subduction zones
Divergent boundaries
Collision zones

Intraplate earthquakes
Extensional situations
Compressional situations

Geosphere
Plate Tectonics explains ...
Non-randomness of volcanoes
Subduction zones
Divergent boundaries

Hot Spot volcano

trails through time
Related to plate motion

Geosphere
Plate Tectonics explains ...
Continental drift
and why the Earth is not expanding
Sea-floor spreading
Rifting
Subduction
Mountain building

Geosphere
Plate Tectonics explains ...

Why there are mountain chains

Collision zones
Himalayas
Subduction zones
Andes
Island arcs
Divergent zones
MOR mountain chains

Geosphere
Plate Tectonics explains ...
Why we have kangaroos!

Physical isolation
evolution
Isolation at a critical time
Isolation for a long time
Stable for a long time

Geosphere
Plate Tectonics is the context for ...
Mineral exploration
Ore concentration processes
Gold and other metals
Igneous intrusions
Metamorphism
Erosion and sedimentation
Ore type
Ore position
Ore depth
Hydrocarbons
Basin formation
Basin location & thermal history & trap
types

Geosphere
Plate Tectonics is the context for ...
Understanding the rock cycle
Plate Tectonics is a global process
Simple Rock Cycle is a subset
Erosion
Sedimentary rocks
Igneous rocks
Metamorphic rocks
Rock Cycle a 19th Century approach
Plate Tectonics is the new paradigm
Needs to include
Mountain building tectonism
Contributions to and from the Mantle
Over all whole-of-Earth understanding

Geosphere
Plate Tectonics is the context for ...
Understanding natural hazards
Earthquakes
Tsunami
Volcanoes
Landslides
Groundwater

Geosphere
Plate Tectonics is the context for ...
Understanding climate changes
Antarctic
Circumpolar
Current
33.5 Ma
Thermal isolation
Cooling
Glaciation

Geosphere
Plate Tectonics is the context for ...
Understanding landscape evolution
Mountain ranges
Basins and subsidence
River systems
Soils and soil fertility
Groundwater
People and place
Volcanos
Earthquakes
Tsunami
Groundwater issues

Geosphere
Plate Tectonics is the context for ...
Understanding the Earth Systems through
time

Plate Tectonics

Is the
theory of
everything!

Questions