Fiber Optics

Dr. D. Dinakar
Associate Professor
Dept. of Physics
NIT Warangal, India
Email:
dinakar.anu@gmail.com

L
A
S
E
R

Characteristics of LASER:
LASER, when compared with any conventional light( Sun
light or tube light etc.), Laser posses few outstanding
characteristics. They are,
1). Monochromaticity,
2). Directionality,
3). Intensity,
and 4). Coherence.

1). Monochromaticity:

The light emitted from a laser is monochromatic.

Due to Stimulated emission, the light emitted by a laser

is more monochromatic than that of any conventional
monochromatic source(Ex: Sodium lamp).

2). Directionality:
Lasers

emit light that is highly directional, that is, laser light is

emitted as a relatively narrow beam in a specific direction.

The directionality of a laser beam has been expressed in terms

of divergence.
To obtain high directionality there should be low divergence.
For a Laser, the beam spread is less than 0.01mm for every 1
meter but for ordinary light is 0.5m for every 1 meter.

3). Intensity:

The laser light is more intense than conventional light.

The number of photons coming out from a laser per second
per unit area is given by

P
n
2
hr

3). Coherence:

Laser radiation has high degree of coherence.

The word coherence means that the radiations emitted by
atoms, molecules, or photons in the source have same phase, same
direction, same plane of polarization, and same wavelength or
colour (monochromatic).

Incoherent light waves

Coherent light waves

Note: Coherence is expressed in terms of ordering of light

field(amplitude and phase).

Coherence is of two types,

Temporal Coherence and Spatial Coherence
Temporal Coherence:
The amplitude and phase at a point on the wave with respect
to another point on the same wave is said to be the wave is
temporal coherence.
Spatial Coherence:
The amplitude and phase at on a wave with respect to another
point on a second wave then the waves are said to be spatially
coherence.

Distinction between spontaneous and stimulated

emission:
Stimulated emission

Spontaneous Emission

Emission takes place without

any stimulus energy.
Single photon is emitted.
Incoherent radiation.

Emission takes place with the

help of stimulus energy.
Two photons are emitted.
Coherent radiation.

High intense and more

Low intense and less directional. directional.
Poly chromatic radiation.
Monochromatic radiation.

More angular spread.

Less angular spread.

Postulated by Bohr.

Postulated by Einstein.

Ex: Light from Sodium or

mercury vapour lamp

Ex: Light from Ruby or He-Ne

laser

Life time:

The duration of time spent by an atom in the excited state is

known as life time of that energy state.
For example, the life time for hydrogen atom is 10-8 sec.
Population:

The number of atoms per unit volume in an energy level is known

as population of that energy level.
E2>E1 and N1>N2, i.e., the population of lower energy
level is more.
Population Inversion:

The stage of making the population of the higher energy level to

be greater than the population of the lower energy level is known
as population Inversion. i.e., E2>E1 and N1<N2.

POPULATION INVERSION
Population inversion is the process in which the population of a
particular higher energy state is made more than that of a
specified lower energy state.

Meta-stable state:

The excited state, which has long life time is know as meta
stable state.

Energy Transformations:
N2

E2

E2

N1

E1

E1

Absorption

Spontaneous Emission

E2

N2

E1

N1
Stimulated Emission

TYPES OF LASERS Based on Energy Levels:

THREE LEVEL LASERS

Ex: Ruby Laser

FOUR LEVEL LASERS

Ex: He-Ne,

MULTI LEVEL LASERS

Ex: SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS (GaAs)

Three level Laser

E system

E2
E1

Fast decay ( Radiation less)

Meta stable level

pumping
Laser transition

E0

E
E3
E2
pumping

Four level laser

system
Fast decay

Meta stable state

Laser transition

E1
E0

Lasing Action:
In stimulated emission, the emitted photon travels in the same direction
as that of incident photon(as shown in fig.). These two photons again
stimulate two more photons. As a result four photons are released. In a
similar way a chain reaction or avalanche effect is produced. This
phenomenon is known as Lasing Action.
So, a monochromatic, intense and coherent beam having the same
frequency as that of incident beam is obtained. This is called Laser
beam. This is the principle of working of a Laser.
E2
E2
E1

E1

Optical Resonator

Pumping:
The population inversion cannot be achieved thermally. To achieve
population inversion, suitable form of energy must be supplied. The
process of supplying suitable form of energy to a system to achieve
population inversion is called pumping.
In several ways pumping can be done. Most common used
pumping methods are
1). Optical Pumping,
2). Direct Electron Excitation or Electric Discharge,
3). In-elastic atom-atom Collision and
4). Chemical Reaction.

Block Diagram of a Laser System:

The Block diagram of Laser System contains three components.

Source of Energy(Pump):
It is an external source which supplies energy to obtain population
inversion. The pump can be optical, electrical or thermal. In Ruby Laser,
we use optical pumping and in He -Ne Laser, we use electric discharge
pumping.
Active Medium:
It is a medium in which meta-stable state is present. In meta-stable state,
only the population inversion takes place. It can be a Solid, Liquid, Gas
or Semiconductor.
Optical or Resonant Cavity:
It consists of a pair of plane or spherical mirrors having common
principal axis. The reflection coefficient of one of the mirrors is very
near to 1 and that of the other is kept less than 1. The resonator is
basically a feed-back device, that directs the photons back and forth
through the laser medium.

VARIOUS TYPES OF LASERS ARE NOW IN OPERATION

WHICH CAN BE BROADLY CLASSIFIED INTO:

SOLID STATE LASERS

Ex: Ruby Laser & Nd:YAG

LIQUID AND DYE LASERS

Ex: Europium Chelate

GASEOUS LASERS
Ex: He-Ne, CO2 lasers etc

SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS
Ex: GaAs

Completely
Reflecting
surface

Xenon flash lamp

Partially reflecting
surface

Laser
output

Ruby material
cooling

Xenon Flash Lamp

Ruby Laser
Partially reflecting end face

Laser beam

Ruby Rod (Al2O3 +Cr2O3)

Fully coated (reflecting) end face

He-Ne LASER

Semiconductor Laser:

P Type
Las
er

N type

bea
m
Depletion region (Active region)

P-Type: Ga As doped with Germanium.

N-Type: Ga As doped with Tellurium

Laser Hazards

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Types of Laser Hazards

1.

Eye : Acute exposure of the eye to lasers of certain wavelengths

and power can cause corneal or retinal burns (or both). Chronic
exposure to excessive levels may cause corneal or lenticular
opacities (cataracts) or retinal injury.

2.

Skin : Acute exposure to high levels of optical radiation may

cause skin burns; while carcinogenesis may occur for ultraviolet
wavelengths (290-320 nm).

3.

Chemical : Some lasers require hazardous or toxic substances to

operate (i.e., chemical dye, Excimer lasers).

4.

Electrical : Most lasers utilize high voltages that can be lethal.

5.

Fire : The solvents used in dye lasers are flammable. High

voltage pulse or flash lamps may cause ignition. Flammable
materials may be ignited by direct beams or specular reflections
from high power continuous wave (CW) infrared lasers.

Common Laser Signs and Labels

Applications of LASERS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Communication
Computers
Industry
Scientific Research
Military operation
Medicine

Lasers in communication and Atmospheric science:

7. More amount data can be sent because of large band width.
8. More channels
9. Signals cannot be trapped
10.Highly directional, hence greater potential use in space crafts
and submarines.
11.Lidars (Light detection and ranging) to study about
atmospheric features, i.e. to measure atmospheric pollutants,
Ozone concentration, water vapor concentration.

Lasers in computers:
1. In LAN, data transfer from one computer to other for short time.
2. During reading and recording the data on CDs
Lasers in Industry:
3. Blast holes in hard materials like diamond, hard stell etc.
4. Source as intense heat
5. To measure distance to making maps by surveyors
6. To cut teeth saws, drill in surgical needle, guide bulldozers
7. In welding: Purity of the material is not altered.
Lasers in Scientific Research:
8. To separate isotopes of uranium.
9. To create plasma, this may help the scientists to control nuclear fusion reaction.
10. To create 3D-photography called holography.
11. Recording and reconstruction of hologram to data storage.
12. Holography in optical signal processing.
13. To produce some chemical reactions
14. To produce monomers to polymers
15. Internal structure of the microorganisms and cells are studied accurately.

Laser welding

Industrial laser welding

Benefits of laser
welding
Low heat input
Fast cooling
Almost stress free overlays
High hardness
Fine microstructure

Laser Scanners

Laser Pointers

Lasers in Military applications:

1. To target enemy air plane or ship, to determine its distance.
2. To destroy enemy aircraft and missile.
3. As war weapon.
4. To find the velocity of moving object.
5. Target is judged from the strength and spectral distribution of bounced signal.
Lasers in Medicine:
6. To remove diseased body tissues.
7. Retinal detachment by eye specialist.
8. To instantly weld injured muscles, ligaments without use of the heat.
9. Argon and CO2 lasers are used in liver and lungs treatment.
10. To elimination of moles and tumors on skin tissues.
11. In the treatment of Glaucoma.
12. Argon lasers in Neuro surgery, Ophthalmology, general surgery, dermatology,
gynecology.
13. He-Ne Lasers- Diagnostic applications.
14. Ruby lasers Ophthalmology, dermotology.

Laser lighting Show

What are Fiber Optics?

Fiberoptics(opticalfibers)arelong,thincylindrical
waveguidehavingdiametertypicallyofhumanhairor
more.
TheseopticalfibersareusedtotransmitLightsignals
overlongdistances.
Optical fiber is made from thin strands of
either glass or plastic
Optical fibers work on the principle of total
internal reflection.
49

Why Optical Fibers ?

Theoretical information capacity of Optical Communications
are:
1014Hz/100MHz (each TV channel) = 1014 /100x106
= 10x106 = 10 million TV channels.
1014 Hz/1000Hz(each voice channel) = 10 11
= 100x1000x106 = Hundred thousand
million voice channels

50

Fiber Vs Copper communication

Optical fiber transmits light pulses
1.

Can be used for analog or digital transmission

2.

Voice, computer data, video, etc.

Copper wires (or other metals) can carry the same types of signals with electrical pulses
/

Glass
Uses light
Transparent
Dielectric materialnonconductive
EMI immune
Low thermal expansion
Brittle, rigid material
Chemically stable

Copper
Uses electricity
Opaque
Electrically conductive
material
Susceptible to EMI
High thermal expansion
Ductile material
51
Subject to corrosion and

Optical fiber Structure

Core
Carries the light signals
Silica with dopants

Cladding

Keeps
Keeps the
the light
light in
in the
the core
core

Pure
Pure Silica
Silica

Buffer
Protects the fiber from damage
and moisture

Jacket
Holds one or more fibers in a
cable

Representation of the Critical angle and Total Internal Reflection at

a glass-air interface
Transmitted
(refracted) light
k
t
2
n2

2 90

n 1 > n2
k

Incident
light

Evanescent wave

1 c

Reflected
light
(a )

TIR

(c )

(b )

Lightwavetravellinginamoredensemediumstrikesalessdensemedium.Dependingon
theincidenceanglewithrespectto c ,whichisdeterminedbytheratiooftherefractive
indices,thewavemaybetransmitted(refracted)orreflected.(a) 1 c (b)1 c (c)
1 c andtotalinternalreflection(TIR).

Sin c = n

/n

(for

= 900 )

Therefore, for continuous propagation of light in the

optical, the angle of incidence should be greater than
53
the critical angle of refraction at the interface
of core

How the optical fibers work?

Optical fibers work on the principle of total internal reflection

CORE

CLADDING

Light waves (modes) are guided down the length of an optical fiber by
taking multiple reflections at the interface of core and cladding.
54

Numericalaperture
Core-Cladding interface
B

i A

NA sin max
2

Core n1

sin max

n1 n2

n0
2

Fiber axis
Cladding n2

NA n1 n2

NA (n1 n2 )( n1 n2 )

n1 n2
n1

The light gathering capacity of an optical fiber is NA n1(n1 n2 )

knownasnumericalapertureanditisproportional n n
1
2
toacceptanceangle.
2
It is numerically equal to sine of maximum NA n1 2
acceptanceangle.
The ratio between the difference in RIs of Core
and cladding to that of RI of Core is called the
fractionalchange.

NA n1 2

55

Launching Light into an Optical Fiber

ACCEPTANCE ANGLE (C ): The maximum angle of incidence at
the end face of an optical fiber for which the light ray can be
propagated along core-cladding interface is known as maximum
acceptance angle. It is also called acceptance cone half angle.
Rotating
the acceptance angle about the fiber axis describes the
.
acceptance cone of the fiber.
Light launched at the fiber end within this acceptance cone alone will be
accepted and propagated to the other end of the fiber by total internal
reflection.
m
m
Acceptance Cone

CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBERS

BASED ON RAW MATERIAL
1. GLASS
2. PLASTIC
GLASS FIBERS
The fibers are made up of metal oxides and silica glasses.
Example : GeO2 - SiO2 Core and SiO2 Clad.

Plastic Fibers:
Polystyrene and acrylate compounds are used to fabricate plastic
optical fibers. These are inexpensive and highly flexible.
57

58

TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBRES

Based on variation of refractive index difference between core and
cladding, the optical fibers are mainly classified into two types.
1.Step Index fiber
2.Gradex Index fiber
Based on number of Modes of propagation of the signal, optical fibers
can be divided into two types
Single Mode and Multimode.
1. Single-mode fibers Only one mode can be propagated(used in
telephone and cable TV). They have small cores(9 microns in
diameter) and transmit infra-red light from laser.
2. Multi-mode fibers A large number of modes can be propagated
(used in computer networks). They have larger cores(62.5 microns in
diameter) and transmit infra-red light from LED.
59

Step-Index Fiber
A step-index fiber has a central core with a uniform refractive index.
An outside cladding that also has a uniform refractive index surrounds
the core; however, the refractive index of the cladding is less than that
of the central core. These fibers are cladded reflective fibers which
names the working principle of fiber.

60 to 125 m

5 to 10 m

n2

n1

RI

Radial distance

single mode step index fiber

50 to 200 m
100 to 250 m

n1

n2

RI

Radial distance

Multimode mode step index fiber

GRADED-INDEX
In graded-index fiber, the index of refraction in the core decreases
continuously between the axis and the cladding. This causes light rays to
bend smoothly as they approach the cladding, rather than reflecting
abruptly from the core-cladding boundary. The guiding of light is owing
to continuous refraction of light, therefore this is also called refractive
optical fiber
n(r)
100 to 250 m

n2

50 to 200 m

RI

Radial distance

Single mode step-index fiber

ADVANTAGES
1. Minimum dispersion: all rays take same path same time to travel
down the cable. A pulse can be reproduced at the receiver very
accurately.
2. Less attenuation, can run over longer distance without repeaters.
3. Larger bandwidth and higher information rate.

DISADVANTAGES
4.

difficult to couple light in and out of the tiny core

5. Highly directive light source (LASER) is required

6. Interfacing modules are more expensive

62

Multimode fibers
MULTIMODE STEP-INDEX FIBERS
1. In expensive; easy to couple light into fiber
2. Result in higher signal distortion; lower Transmission rate
MULTIMODE GRADED INDEX FIBER
3. Intermediate between the other two types of fibers
4. Difficult to design and manufacturing (drawing of the fiber)

63

Light propagation through Fibers

64

Specifications of Optical Fiber

Attenuation
Loss of signal, measured in dB
Dispersion
Blurring of a signal, affects bandwidth
Bandwidth
The number of bits per second that can be sent through a data
link
Numerical Aperture
Measures the largest angle of light that can be accepted into
the core
65

The predominant losses in optic fibers

1. Absorption losses due to impurities in the fiber material
2. Material (or) Rayleigh scattering losses due to microscopic
irregularities in the fiber
3. Chromatic (or) wavelength dispersion because of the use of a
non-mono (poly) chromatic source
4. Radiation losses caused by bends and kinks in the fiber
5. Modal dispersion (or) pulse spreading due to rays taking
different paths down the fiber.
6. Coupling losses caused by misalignment & imperfect surface
66
finishes

Attenuation
Light travelling through an optical fiber exhibits a power that decreases
exponentially with the distance as a result of absorption and scattering.
Attenuation limits the magnitude of the optical power transmitted

Loss Mechanisms
Absorption by atomic defects
(missing molecules, high density clusters of atom groups or oxygen
defects in the glass structure)
Scattering
(microscopic variations in the material density, compositional
fluctuations, structural in homogeneities or defects during fiber
manufacturing)
Macrobending
67

Transmission windows
Band

Description

Wavelength Range

O band

original

1260 to 1360 nm

E band

extended

1360 to 1460 nm

S band

short wavelengths

1460 to 1530 nm

C band

conventional ("erbium 1530 to 1565 nm

window")

L band

long wavelengths

U band

Ultra-long wavelengths 1625 to 1675 nm68

1565 to 1625 nm

WhySilicaBasedGlass?
IntrinsiclowlossinNIRwhereSourcesand
detectorsareavailable.
MinimuminmaterialdispersionCoincideswithlow
losswavelengths.
Intrinsichighstrength.
Excellentchemicaldurabilityandstability.
Lowthermalexpansion.
HighpurityChemicalsavailable.
Lowcostandtoxicity.
69

Light sources
LED (Light Emitting Diodes)
1. Made from material such as AlGaAs (or) AlGaP
2. Light is emitted when electrons and holes recombines
3. Either surface emitting (or) edge emitting
Injection Laser Diodes (ILD)
4. Similar in construction as LED except ends are highly polished
to reflect photons back and fourth

70

Light Detectors
PIN diodes
1. Photons are absorbed in the intrinsic layers
2. Sufficient energy is added to generate carriers in the
depletion layer for current to flow through the device

AVALANCHE PHOTO DIODES (ADP)

3. Photo generated electrons are accelerated by
relatively larger reverse voltage and collide with other
atoms to produce more free electrons
4. Avalanche multiplication effect makes APD more
71

OpticalFiberApplications
FiberOpticCommunication
FiberOpticSensors
1. DisplacementSensor
2. TemperatureSensor
3. VibrationSensor
4. ChemicalSensor
5. PressureSensor
6. HumiditySensor

72

WhyUseFiberOpticCommunication
Economics
Fiber is already used in:
Speed
> 90% of all long distance
telephony
Distance
> 50% of all local telephony
Weight/size
Most CATV networks
Freedomfrominterference Most LAN (computer network)
backbones
Electricalisolation
Many video surveillance links
Security

Preferable Optical Fiber

(Single Mode)

Two types of Fiber media

generallyweusedare
Multimode
Singlemode
Multimode Fiber can support
less
bandwidth
than
SinglemodeFiber.
Single mode Fiber has a very
small core and carry only one
beam of light. It can support
Gbpsdataratesover>100Km

withoutusingrepeaters.

Protects the fibers wherever

they are installed
May have 1 to over 1000
fibers

Optical Fiber Cable Construction

Bandwidth capabilities for a range of optical and RF technologies

76

Demand for High-speed Communications

77

Elements of an Optical Fiber

Fiber optic links contain three basic elements
communication
Transmitter, optical fiber,

User
Input(s)

User
Input(s)

Electrical
Interface

Data Encoder/
Modulator

Light
Emitter

Optical Fiber
Receiver

Transmitter

Electrical-to-Optical Conversion
Optical
Input

receiver

Light Detector/
Amplifier

Optical
Output

User
Output(s)

Optical-to-Electrical Conversion

Data Decoder/
Demodulator

Electrical
Interface

User
Output(s)

Optical Communications:
Optical fibers around the world

DWDM Technology

= 25 100GHz

(0.4 or 0.8 nm @ 1500 nm)

GlobalUnderseaFibersystems

Fiber Optic Applications

Outside Plant vs Premises Installations

Presented By The Fiber Optic

Association
2004, The Fiber Optic Association,

FiberOpticInstallationOutsidePlant

Advantages of Fiber Optics sensors over

smallsize,flexibilityinlengthofthefiber,securedatatransmission,remotable
conventional sensors
Differencesandadvantagesoverconventionalsensors:
Differencesandadvantagesoverconventionalsensors:
ConventionalSensors

FiberOpticSensors

Physicallycontact

Bothcontactandnoncontact

Conductive
Corrosivematerials

Nonconductive(Insulator)
NonCorrosivematerials

Chemicallyandelectricallyactive

Chemicallyandelectricallyinert
ImmunetoEMI

Lowaccuracyandsensitivity
Difficultfordistributedsensing

Highaccuracyandsensitivity,
Canbeeasilyusedfordistributed
sensing

Theregeneratedvoltageacrossthe
Suitableforharshenvironmentand
thermocouplejunctionwouldbe
onlinemonitoringsystemcanbe
undesirableasitcouldleadtopremature
madeeasily.
combustions(or)explosionincombustible potentially easy to install
orexplosivesystem

83

Optical Fiber in Medical Applications

84

Endoscopy in Medical
Minimally invasive surgical procedure
Keyhole or seamless surgery
Allows surgeons to peer into the body and examine organs in situ
Also widely used as a diagnostic procedure
Coherent bundle of fibres - i.e., a 1:1 mapping of fibres from one
end to the other

85

Endoscopy used to examine the internal

parts of the body

The View
86

87

Bronchoscopy

During bronchoscopy, your doctor will put a thin flexible tube

(bronchoscope) into your nose or mouth. Then he or she will
move it gently down your throat to look at the larger airways
(bronchi)toyourlungs.

Lung Disease & Respiratory Health

Photodynamictherapy
Thephotodynamic therapy is a minimally invasive medical
treatment which consists in using aphotosensitizing drug,
which is activated by a laser light through an optical fiber
optical fiber

Fibre-Optic Needle to Detect Cancerous Tissue Without

Markers and to melt the tissues by launching high Laser
energy

90

A fiberoptic intraaortic force sensing catheter

probe enables realtime monitoring of the force
exertedagainsttheheartwallbythecatheter

91

FiberLaserformetalcutting

92

Industrialapplications

lumbing inspection repair robot

Plumbing inspection repair robot
The plumbing such as nuclear energy,
electricity, the chemical plant, and
inspection and repair of the plumbing
inner walls such as a building, and the
apartment

Compact torch laser to welding a

narrow overflow parts

Repair of the difficult part of viewing

such as a metallic mold of a
complicated casting.

Other Applications of optical fibers :

In computers, fibers are used to exchange the
information between different terminals in a
network.
The optical fibers are used in industrial
automation, security alarm system and
process control.

94

THA
NK

YOU