Chapter 2

Circuit Analysis Techniques

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Circuit Analysis Techniques

Voltage Division Principle

Current Division Principle
Nodal Analysis with KCL
Mesh Analysis with KVL
Superposition
Thvenin Equivalence
Nortons Equivalence

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Circuit Analysis using Series/Parallel Equivalents

1. Begin by locating a combination of resistances that are in series or
parallel. Often the place to start is farthest from the source.
2. Redraw the circuit with the equivalent resistance for the combination
found in step 1.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until the circuit is reduced as far as possible. Often
(but not always) we end up with a single source and a single resistance.
4. Solve for the currents and voltages in the final equivalent circuit.

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Working Backward

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Voltage Division
R1
v1 R1i
v total
R1 R2 R3
R2
v 2 R2 i
v total
R1 R2 R3

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Application of the
Voltage-Division
Principle
R
v
v
1

R1 R2 R3 R4

total

1000

15
1000 1000 2000 6000
1.5V

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Current Division
R2
v
i1

itotal
R1 R1 R2

R1
v
i2

itotal
R2 R1 R2

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Application of the Current-Division

Principle

R2 R3
30 60
Req

20
R2 R3 30 60
Req

20
i1
is
15 10A
R1 Req
10 20
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Voltage division

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Voltage division and

current division

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Current division

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Although they are very

important concepts,
series/parallel equivalents
and
the current/voltage
division
principles are not
sufficient to solve all
circuits.
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Node Voltage (Nodal) Analysis

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Definitions of node and Supernode

Obtain values for the unknown voltages

across the elements in the circuit below.

At node 1

At node 2
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v1
v v
1 2 3.1
2
5
v2
v2 v1

- (-1.4)
1
5

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Writing KCL Equations in Terms of the

Node Voltages for Figure 2.16

v1 v s

node 1

node 2

v 2 v1 v 2 v 2 v3

0
R2
R4
R3

node 3

v3 v1 v3 v3 v 2

0
R1
R5
R3

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node 1

v1 v1 v 2

is 0
R1
R2
node 2

v2 v1 v 2 v 2 v3

0
R2
R3
R4

node 3

v3 v3 v2

is
R5
R4

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No. of unknown: v1, v2, v3

No. of linear equation : 3
Setting up nodal equation with
KCL at Node 1, Node 2, Node 3

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No. of unknown: v1, v2, v3

No. of linear equation : 3
Setting up nodal equation with
KCL at Node 1, Node 2, Node 3

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Problem with node 3, it is rather

hard to set the nodal equation at
node 3, but still solvable. Why?
As there is no way to determine
the current through the voltage
source, but v3=Vs

v3

Problem with node 3, it is rather

hard to set the nodal equation at
node 3 but still solvable.
Same as before.

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May Not Be That Simple

Circuits with Voltage

Sources
We obtain dependent
equations if we use
all of the nodes in a network to write KCL
equations.
Any branch with a voltage source:

define SUPERNODE, sum all current either

in or out at the supernode with KCL
use KVL to set up dependent equation
involving the voltage source.
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(a) The circuit of Example 4.2 with a

22-V source in place of the 7-
resistor. (b) Expanded view of the
region defined as a supernode; KCL
requires that all currents flowing
into the region must sum to zero, or
we would pile up or run out of
electrons.
At node 1:

83

v1 v2 v1 v3

3
4

At the supernode:

v2 v1 v3 v1 v3 v2

3
4
5 1
v3 v2 22

3 25

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Summing all the current out

from the supernode A
For supernode A, EXCLUDE THE SOURCE

v1 v1 (15)

R2
R1

v2 v2 (15)

0
R4
R3

Why?
As the current via the 10V source is equal to the current via
R4 plus the current via R3
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For supernode B, EXCLUDE THE SOURCE

v1 v1 15 v 2 v 2 15

0
R2
R1
R4
R3
Summing all the current into the supernode B

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v1 v1 (15)

R2
R1

v2 v2 (15)

0
R4
R3

-v1 -10 + v2 = 0
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Any branch with a voltage source:

define supernode, sum all current either in or out at the
supernode with KCL
use KVL to set up dependent equation involving the
voltage source.

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v1 v1 v3 v 2 v 3

1
R1
R2
R3
v1 10 v 2 0

v3 v1 v3 v 2
v3

0
R2
R3
R4
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v1 v3

1
R1 R4

 v1 10 v 2 0
v1 v3

1
R1 R4

v1 v1 v3 v 2 v 3

1
R1
R2
R3

v3 v1 v3 v 2
v3

0
R2
R3
R4

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Node-Voltage Analysis with a

Dependent Source
First, we write KCL equations at each node,
including the current of the controlled source just
as if it were an ordinary current source.
Next, we find an expression for the controlling
variable ix in terms of the node voltages.

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v1 v 2
is 2i x
R1

v3 v 2 v3

2i x 0
R3
R4

v 2 v1 v 2 v 2 v 3

0
R1
R2
R3
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v1 v 2
is 2i x
R1

v 2 v1 v 2 v 2 v 3

0
R1
R2
R3
v3 v 2 v3

2i x 0
R3
R4

v3 v 2
ix
R3
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Substitution yields
v3 v 2
v1 v2
is 2
R1
R3

v 2 v1 v 2 v 2 v 3

0
R1
R2
R3

v3 v 2 v3
v3 v 2

2
0
R3
R4
R3

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Node-Voltage Analysis
1. Select a reference node and assign variables for the unknown
node voltages. If the reference node is chosen at one end of an
independent voltage source, one node voltage is known at the start,
and fewer need to be computed.
2. Write network equations. First, use KCL to write current equations
for nodes and supernodes. Write as many current equations as you
can without using all of the nodes. Then if you do not have enough
equations because of voltage sources connected between nodes, use
KVL
additional
3. If to
thewrite
circuit
containsequations.
dependent sources, find expressions for the
controlling variables in terms of the node voltages. Substitute into
the network equations, and obtain equations having only the node
voltages as unknowns.
4. Put the equations into standard form and solve for the node
voltages.
5. Use the values found for the node voltages to calculate any other
currents or voltages of interest.
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Step 1.Reference node

Step 1. v1

Step 1 v2

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Step 2.

v 2 v1 v2

1
10
5
v1 10

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Step 1
v1

v2

Step 1
Step 2

v3

supernode

Step 1
ref supernode
Step 3

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node 1

v1 v3 v1 v2
3

5
10
v1 v2 v2 v1 v3 v3

0
10
2
5
5
v2 v3 2i y

v1 v3
iy
5
v2 v3 v1 v3

2
5

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Mesh Current Analysis

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Definition of a loop

Definition of a mesh

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Choosing the Mesh Currents

When several mesh currents flow
through one element, we consider
the current in that element to be the
algebraic sum of the mesh currents.

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Writing Equations to
Solve for Mesh
Currents

If a network contains only resistors

and independent voltage sources,
we can write the required equations
by following each current around its
mesh and applying KVL.
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For mesh 1, we have

R2 i1 i3 R3 i1 i2 v A 0

For mesh 2, we obtain

R3 i2 i1 R4 i2 v B 0

For mesh 3, we have

R2 i3 i1 R1i3 v B 0
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Determine the two mesh currents, i1 and i2, in the circuit below.

For the left-hand mesh,

-42 + 6 i1 + 3 ( i1 - i2 ) = 0
For the right-hand mesh,
3 ( i2 - i1 ) + 4 i2 - 10 = 0
Solving, we find that i1 = 6 A and i2 = 4 A.
(The current flowing downward through
the 3- resistor is therefore i1 - i2 = 2 A. )
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Mesh Currents in
Circuits Containing
Current
Sources
*A common
mistake is to assume
the voltages

across current sources are zero. Therefore, loop

equation cannot be set up at mesh one due to the
voltage across the current source is unknown
Anyway, the problem is
still solvable.

i1 2

10(i2 i1 ) 5i2 10 0
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As the current source common to two mesh, combine

meshes 1 and 2 into a supermesh. In other words, we write a
KVL equation around the periphery of meshes 1 and 2
combined.
It is the supermesh.

i1 2 i 1 i3 4 i2 i3 10 0

Mesh 3:
3i3 4 i3 i2 2 i3 i1 0

i2 i1 5
Three linear equations
and three unknown

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Find the three mesh currents in the circuit below.

Creating a supermesh from meshes 1 and 3:

-7 + 1 ( i1 - i2 ) + 3 ( i3 - i2 ) + 1 i3 = 0

[1]

Around mesh 2:
1 ( i2 - i1 ) + 2 i2 + 3 ( i2 - i3 ) = 0

[2]

Finally, we relate the currents in meshes 1 and 3:

i1 - i3 = 7

[3]

Rearranging,
i1 - 4 i2 + 4 i3 = 7

[1]

-i1 + 6 i2 - 3 i3 = 0

[2]

i1

[3]

- i3 = 7

Solving,
i1 = 9 A, i2 = 2.5 A, and i3 = 2 A.
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supermesh of mesh1 and mesh2 20 4i1 6i2 2i2 0

branch current

v x 2i2
current source

vx
i2 i1
4
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 20 4i1 6i2 2i2 0

v x 2i2

vx
i2 i1
4
Three equations and three unknown.

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Mesh-Current Analysis
1. If necessary, redraw the network without crossing conductors or elements.
Then define the mesh currents flowing around each of the open areas defined
by the network. For consistency, we usually select a clockwise direction for
each of the mesh currents, but this is not a requirement.
2. Write network equations, stopping after the number of equations is equal
to the number of mesh currents. First, use KVL to write voltage equations for
meshes that do not contain current sources. Next, if any current sources are
present, write expressions for their currents in terms of the mesh currents.
Finally, if a current source is common to two meshes, write a KVL equation for
the
3. Ifsupermesh.
the circuit contains dependent sources, find expressions for the
controlling variables in terms of the mesh currents. Substitute into the
network equations, and obtain equations having only the mesh currents as
unknowns.
4. Put the equations into standard form. Solve for the mesh currents by use
of determinants or other means.
5. Use the values found for the mesh currents to calculate any other currents
or voltages of interest.
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Superposition
Superposition Theorem the response of a
circuit to more than one source can be
determined by analyzing the circuits
response to each source (alone) and then
combining the results
Insert Figure 7.2

Superposition

Insert Figure 7.3

Superposition
Analyze Separately, then Combine Results

Use superposition to find the current ix.

Current source is zero open circuit as I = 0 and solve iXv

Voltage source is zero short circuit as V= 0 and solve iXv

i X i Xv i Xc

Use superposition to find the current ix.

The controlled voltage source is included in all cases as

it is controlled by the current ix.

Voltage and Current Sources

Insert Figure 7.7

Voltage and Current Sources

Insert Figure 7.8

Voltage and Current Sources

Insert Figure 7.9

Source Transformation
Under what condition, the voltage and
current of the load is the same when
operating at the two practical sources?
For voltage source
VS
VL
RL
R S RL
For current source
iS RP
,
VL
RL
RP RL
We have,
VS
iS RP

R S RL RP RL

VS
RP RS , i S
RS

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Voltage and Current Sources

Equivalent Voltage and Current Sources for every
voltage source, there exists an equivalent current
source, and vice versa

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Thevenins Theorem
Thevenins Theorem any resistive circuit
or network, no matter how complex, can be
represented as a voltage source in series
with a source resistance

Thevenins Theorem
Thevenin Voltage (VTH) the voltage present at the
output terminals of the circuit when the load is removed

Insert Figure 7.18

Thevenins Theorem
Thevenin Resistance (RTH) the resistance
measured across the output terminals with the
load removed

Thvenin Equivalent
Circuits

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Thvenin Equivalent
Circuits
Vt v oc
voc
Rt
isc

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Thvenin Equivalent
Circuits

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Finding the Thvenin

Resistance Directly
When zeroing a voltage source, it
becomes a short circuit. When zeroing
a current source, it becomes an open
circuit.
We can find the Thvenin resistance by
zeroing the sources in the original
network and then computing the
resistance between the terminals.
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Computation of Thvenin resistance

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Equivalence of open-circuit and Thvenin voltage

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A circuit and its Thvenin equivalent

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Superposition

As the voltage source does not contribute any output voltage,

Only the current source has the effect.
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Determine the Thvenin and Norton Equivalents of Network A in (a).

Source transformation

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Find the Thvenin equivalent of the circuit shown in (a).

As i = -1, therefore, the controlled voltage source is -1.5V.

Use nodal analysis at node v,
v (1.5) v
1, v 0.6
3
2

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Thus,
Rth =v/I = 0.6/1 = 0.6 ohms

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Applications of Thevenins Theorem

Load Voltage Ranges Thevenins theorem
is most commonly used to predict the
change in load voltage that will result from
a change in load resistance

Applications of Thevenins Theorem

Maximum Power Transfer
Maximum power transfer from a circuit to a
variable load occurs when the load resistance
equals the source resistance
For a series-parallel circuit, maximum power
occurs when RL = RTH

Applications of Thevenins Theorem

Multiload Circuits

Insert Figure 7.30

Nortons Theorem
Nortons Theorem any resistive circuit or network,
no matter how complex, can be represented as a
current source in parallel with a source resistance

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Nortons Theorem
Norton Current (IN) the current through
the shorted load terminals

Insert Figure 7.35

Computation of Norton current

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Nortons Theorem
Norton Resistance (RN) the resistance
measured across the open load terminals
(measured and calculated exactly like RTH)

Nortons Theorem

Norton-to-Thevenin and Thevenin-to-Norton

Conversions

Insert Figure 7.39

Step-by-step
Thvenin/Norton-EquivalentCircuit Analysis
1. Perform two of these:
a. Determine the open-circuit voltage
Vt = voc.
b. Determine the short-circuit current
In = isc.
c. Zero the sources and find the
Thvenin
resistance Rt looking back
into the terminals.
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2. Use the equation Vt = Rt In to

compute the remaining value.
3. The Thvenin equivalent consists of
a voltage source Vt in series with Rt .
4. The Norton equivalent consists of a
current source In in parallel with Rt .

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Maximum Power
Transfer
The load resistance that absorbs
the maximum power from a twoterminal circuit is equal to the
Thvenin resistance.

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Power transfer between source

and load

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Graphical representation of
maximum power transfer

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