Sistematika

Penelitian
Sarwono Waspadji

Why Do We Conduct Research?

We conduct research to obtain knowledge, explore
unknown aspects and find out solutions for many
of our problems.
Research leads to invention, innovation and
creation of artifacts which are useful to make the
living happier. It is an explorative expedition into
the areas of human ignorance.
Research bring light into the darker side of our
intellectual voyages.

Research is defined as human activity based on

intellectual application in the investigation of matter.
The primary aim for applied research is discovering,
interpreting, and the development of methods and
systems for the advancement of human knowledge
on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world
and the universe.
Research use the scientific method
Research is a systematic, dilligent inquiry or
examination of some field of knowledge undertaken
to establish fact or principles; it involves
collecting and analyzing data

The goal of the research process is to produce new

knowledge, which takes three main forms although,
the boundaries between them may be fuzzy):
Exploratory research,
which structures and identifies new problems
Constructive research,
which develops solutions to a problem
Empirical research,
which tests the feasibility of a solution using
empirical evidence

Etiologic Research
Diagnostic Research
Prognostic Research
Therapeutic Research

Categories of Research
I. Empirical and Theoritical
Empirical: Based upon observation and experience
Theoritical: Based upon theory and abstraction
Both complement each other :

in developing / understanding pheno

in predicting future events
in the prevention of harmful events

Health Research mainly follow empirical approach

Empirical research:
Quantitative:

Quantative
Qualitative

population of interest
charateristics (variables, individual, units in population)
variability of these characteristics

Measurement of variables
Estimation of population parameters (distribution and variability of
observation in the population)
Estimating the extent to which chance play a role (Statistical testing)

II. Basic and Applied Research

Basic Research= Pure Research
involve a search for knowledge without
a defined goal of utility or specific purpose
Applied research: a problem oriented research and
is direted toward the solution of existing problem
In general there is a need to have a healthy balance between the 2 types
Basic research needs more affluent and technologically advanced
resources

Basic research (fundamental or pure research)

has as its primary objective the advancement of
knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the
relations among variables. It is exploratory and often
driven by the researchers curiosity, interest, and intuition.
It is conducted without any practical end in mind,
although it may have unexpected results pointing
to practical applications.

The terms basic or fundamental indicate that, through

theory generation, basic research provides the foundation
for further, sometimes applied research.
There is no guarantee of short-term practical gain.

III. Health Research Triangle

Operational interlink between

Biomedical research
Deals primarily with basic research
involving process at cellular/molecular
level
Health services research
Deals with issues in the environment
surrounding man which promote changes
at cellular level
Behavioural research
Deals with interaction of man and the
environment in a manner reflecting the
beliefs, attitudes, and practices of the
individual in society

Research is a quest for knowledge through dilligent

search or investigation or experimentation aimed at
discovery and interpretation of new knowledge

Scientific method is a systematic body of procedures

and techniques applied carrying out investigation or
experimentation targeted at obtaining new knowledge
A course of critical enquiry leading to the discovery
of fact or information which increases our understanding of human health and disease

DISERTASI
Karya tulis akademik hasil studi mendalam
yang dilakukan secara mandiri dan berisi
sumbangan baru bagi perkembangan ilmu
pengetahuan atau menemukan jawaban baru
bagi masalah-masalah yang sementara telah
diketahui jawabannya atau mengajukan
pertanyaan-pertanyaan baru terhadap hal-hal
yang dipandang telah mapan di bidang ilmu
pengetahuan, teknologi dan kesenian yang
dilakukan calon doktor di bawah pengawasan
para pembimbingnya.

PENELITIAN
DISERTASI

Orisinalitas
Menghasilkan sesuatu yang baru
(konsep atau produk)
Dilakukan dengan metoda
penelitian yang sesuai tujuan
(desain, sampel, analisis)
Menggunakan metoda pengukuran
yang up to date dan akurat
Azas manfaat

Scientific method
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain
structural process.
Though step order may vary depending on the
subject matter and researcher,
the following steps are usually part of most formal
research,
both basic and applied:

Formation of the topic

Hypothesis
Conceptual definitions
Operational definitions
Gathering of data
Analysis of data
Test, revising of hypothesis
Conclusion, iteration if necessary

Charateristics of Research
Research originates with a question or a problem
Research requires a clear articulation of a goal
Research follows a specific plan of procedures
Research usually divides the principle problem into
more manageable sub-problems
Research is guided by the specific research
problem, questions or hypothesis
Research accepts certain critical assumptions, i.e.
underlying theories or ideas about how the
world works
Research requires the collection and interpretation
of data in attempting to resolve the problem
Research is a cyclical or more exactly spiral or
helical

Typical Steps in Research

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Establishing a research question / hypothesis

Finding background information
Planning and conducting a specific research
methods
Collecting and studying data
Analyzing the data
Formulating and establishing a conclusion
Looking for areas of further research
Stating the values associated with the research
knowledge
Publishing the research work for the others to view

Benang Merah

Sistematika Ilmiah

Fenomena
Teori dan Fakta
Masalah Penelitian
Hipotesis
Operasionalisasi Variabel
Penetapan Model Penelitian
Observasi Empirik
Pengolahan Data
Simpulan

Sistematika Penelitian
KAJIAN TEORI / DATA / EBM
induktif

deduktif

PENGUJIAN
PENYUSUNAN
HIPOTESIS
HIPOTESIS
St. parametrik
Meta Analisis
St. non parametrik
Eksperimen
RR
Cohort
OR Case Control
Confidence Interval Cross Sectional

Menganalisis
Penelitian

Hasil

Penelitian

Merancang

Empiric Research Cycle

Gap between
das Sein & das Sollen
Literature Study
Research Question(?)/
Hypothesis
Methods / Design
Data Collection and
Analysis
Conclusions

In
the
Real
Worl
d

Inference

In the samp

Study Protocol
Aims as guidance for the
investigator in the whole process
of planned research
Different formats or styles,
depending on intitutions: should
be followed
rigidly
I. Introduction

II. Literature Review

III. Methods
IV. References
V. Appendices

1.1 Latar Belakang

1.2 Identifikasi Masalah
1.3 Tujuan Penelitian
1.4 Hipotesis
1.5 Manfaat penelitian

Bab II. Tinjauan Pustaka

Tinjauan pustaka diakhiri dengan Kerangka

Teori dan Kerangka Konsep

Bab III. Metoda Penelitian

Desain
Tempat dan waktu
Populasi dan sampel
Kriteria inklusi dan eksklusi
Besar sampel
Cara Kerja
Identifikasi variabel
Definisi operasional variabel
Menejemen dan analisis data
Masalah etika

Bab IV. Hasil Penelitian

Bab V. Pembahasan,
Bab VII. Daftar Pustaka
Lampiran

Diakhiri dengan

Simpulan
Saran

Benang Me

Judul Penelitian
Bab I. Pendahuluan

Research Problem
A research problem focuses on the issue(s) or set of
relationship that a researcher would like to study
Examples:
Factors affecting the development of diabetic foot ulcer
(and wound healing)
The role of ChenoDeoxyCholicAcid in Cholestatic Sepsis
The importance of structured exercise in Haj pilgrimate
with pes planus
Peran Aktivasi sel L A K pada lisis Sel Lini Endometriosis

F I N E R ?

V I A?

Bagian yang sangat penting dari suatu penelitian

Syarat untuk Masalah Penelitian

Feasible: mampu laksana
subjek cukup, dana cukup, waktu, alat, keahlian

Interesting : menarik bagi peneliti

Novel: Sesuatu yang baru
Ethical: tidak bertentangan dengan etika. Komisi Etik FKUI
Relevant:
Bagi ilmu pengetahuan, tatalaksana pasien,
Bagi kebijakan kesehatan
Untuk dasar penelitian selanjutnya dsb.

V alid
I nteresting
A pplicable

Sifat Suatu Penelitian

Baru
Membantah penemuan terdahulu
Mengonfirmasi/ memverifikasi penemuan
terdahulu
Melengkapi, mengembangkan, hasil penelitian
terdahulu
Menemukan sesuatu yang baru

Definition of Originality
1. Saying something nobody has said before
2. Carrying out empirical work that has not been done before
3. Synthesizing something that has not been put before
4. Making a new interpretation of someone else material
or ideas
5. Taking a new technique and applying it to a new area
6. Taking an existing technique and applying it to a new area
7. Being cross disiplinary and using different methodologies
8. Looking at topics that people in the chosen disiplines have
not looked at before
9. Adding in knowledge in a way that has not ben done before
10. Testing existing knowledge in an original way
11. Writing down a new piece of information for the first time
12. Continuing a previously original piece of work

Sumber masalah Penelitian:

Kepustakaan, Buku Ajar, Journal, Internet dll.
Bahan Diskusi, hasil konferensi, seminar
Pengalaman praktek sehari-hari
Pendapat pakar
Teori vs. Praktek
Sumber-lain

Bab I. Pendahuluan

Latar Belakang Masalah

1.1 Latar Belakang

1.2 Identifikasi Masalah
1.3 Tujuan Penelitian
1.4 Hipotesis
1.5 Manfaat penelitian

Magnitude of the problem

Apa
Mengapa
Bagaimana
Untuk apa (manfaat)

Harus dapat diikuti alur pikir yang runut,

dan dikemukakan dalam bahasa tulis yang
Benang merah harus tampak.
Premis yang mendasari harus jelas.

Most important part of research proposal

Bab I. Pendahuluan
1.1 Latar Belakang
1.2 Identifikasi Masalah
1.3 Tujuan Penelitian
1.4 Hipotesis
1.5 Manfaat penelitian

Research Question(s)/Rumusan Masalah

Identifikasi masalah: merupakan ringkasan masalah yang
ada
Rumusan Masalah Pertanyaan penelitian
Formulation of the background in interogative sentence(s)
Brief and direct
Clear
Not multiintepretable

Contoh Perumusan Masalah

Apakah pada kolestasis terkait sepsis pemberian

CDCA bermanfaat ?
Apakah program latihan terstruktur dengan insole
dapat mengurangi kelelahan pada jemaah haji
dengan pes planus?
Bagaimana mekanisme peran CDCA pada kolestasis
terkait sepsis?
Apakah sel LAK berperan melisis sel Lini
Endometriosis?
Bagaimana mekanisme peran sel LAK dalam melisis
sel lini endometriosis?

RUMUSAN MASALAH
Berdasarkan teori dan pendahuluan yang telah
dikemukakan, masalah pada penelitian ini adalah:

Belum terdapat data mengenai ekspresi CD11b,

CD11b/CD42b, CD14/CD42b dan CD62p sebagai
faktor risiko aktivasi koagulasi pada leukemia
jenis mieloid (LMA dan LGK).

Belum diketahui apakah jumlah leukosit dan/atau

sel blas + promielosit juga meningkatkan risiko
aktivasi koagulasi pada LMA dan LGK.

Belum terdapat data variabel manakah yang

mempunyai risiko paling tinggi untuk terjadi
aktivasi koagulasi pada LMA dan LGK.

Bab I. Pendahuluan

Tujuan Penelitian

1.1 Latar Belakang

1.2 Identifikasi Masalah
1.3 Tujuan Penelitian
1.4 Hipotesis
1.5 Manfaat penelitian

Tujuan Umum:
Tujuan akhir penelitian yang hendak dilaksanakan,
yang mungkin merupakan aspek yang lebih luas atau tujuan
Jangka panjangnya

Tujuan Khusus:
Disebutkan secara lebih tajam hal yang akan langsung
diukur, dinilai atau diperoleh dari penelitian
Tujuan umum dan khusus dapat dijadikan satu kalimat
(bila pendek)
Tujuan umum dan khusus dapat ditulis terpisah

Purpose of Study

General: Wider aspects or prospective

nature
To reduce mortality associated with DSS
Specific: What exactly will be measured
- To determine demographic and clinical
factors associated with the development of
DSS in children
- To determine the effectiveness of
crystalloid A as compared to RL solution in
managing pts with DSS

Spesific purposes should be in line with

TUJUAN PENELITIAN
Tujuan umum
Mengetahui apakah peningkatan ekspresi CD11b, CD62p,
CD11b/ CD42b, CD14/CD42b dan jumlah leukosit serta sel
blas + promielosit meningkatkan risiko aktivasi koagulasi
pada LMA dan LGK.
Tujuan khusus
Memperoleh nilai ekspresi CD11b, CD62p, CD11b/CD42b,
CD14/CD42b pada LMA dan LGK, serta odds ratio atau
risikonya terhadap peningkatan F1+2 yang
menggambarkan aktivasi koagulasi.
Mendapatkan risiko peningkatan jumlah leukosit serta sel
blas + promielosit terhadap peningkatan kadar F1+2 pada
LMA dan LGK.
Mengetahui variabel yang mempunyai risiko paling tinggi
terhadap peningkatan F1+2 pada LMA dan LGK.

HIPOTESIS

Pada LMA dan LGK, peningkatan

ekspresi integrin CD11b, CD62p,
CD11b/ CD42b dan CD14/CD42b
meningkatkan risiko aktivasi
koagulasi.
Peningkatan jumlah leukosit dan sel
blas + promielosit meningkatkan
risiko aktivasi koagulasi pada LMA
dan LGK.

Hypotheses:

Bab I. Pendahuluan

carefully constructed statement

about a phenomenon in the population

1.1 Latar Belakang

1.2 Identifikasi Masalah
1.3 Tujuan Penelitian
1.4 Hipotesis
1.5 Manfaat penelitian

Method of difference:
Difference in frequency of lung cancer in smokers
and non smokers
Method of agreement:
The occurrence of hepatitis A is associated with
patient contact, crowding and poor sanitation and
hygiene
Method of concomitant variation:
Increasing frequency of leukemia with increasing
radiation exposure
Method of analogy:
The distribution and frequency of a disease or effect
may be similar enough to that of some other disease
to suggest commonality in cause

Hypothesis

An answer to research question that should

be validated empirically
Hypothesis should not be judged as correct
or incorrect, but as valid or not valid
Not all studies need hypothesis; surveys and
other descriptive studies do not need
hypothesis
Any research questions containing the
words:
associated with, related to, correlated to,
different from, larger, smaller, better,
worse, more, cause, risk factor(s) etc.

Charateristic of Good
Hypothesis

Written in positive sentence

Based on good scientific reasoning
Can be validated empirically
Simple:
- describe the association of one or more
independent variables and one dependent
variable
- can be tested separetely with hypothesis testing
Formulated a priori

A POSTERIORI, DATA DREDGING, FISHING EXPED

Bab I. Pendahuluan
1.1 Latar Belakang
1.2 Identifikasi Masalah
1.3 Tujuan Penelitian
1.4 Hipotesis
1.5 Manfaat penelitian

Significance / Manfaat

Academic
Clinical
Health Policy
Further Research

Kerangka Teori
Ringkasan tinjauan pustaka terkait
langsung dengan rencana penelitian
- Bentuk skema,
- Disertai dengan narasi pendek

KERANGKA TEORI
CANCER
PROCOAGULANT

TROMBOSIS

F. JARINGAN/
PARTIKEL MIKRO

L
E
U
K
E
M
IA

F.X

SITOKIN:
TNF- & IL-I
AKTIVASI
ENDOTEL
AKTIVASI
TROMBOSIT
(CD62p)
c
(

MOLEKUL ADHESI
(CD11b)

INFEKSI

AGREGAT
NEUTROFIL/M
ONOSITTROMBOSIT

LEUKOSITOSIS

KEMOTERAPI

AKTIVASI
KOAGULASI
(F1+2)

F.X
STASIS

PERUBAHAN F. KOAGULASI

Kateter v. sentral

Kerangka teori aktivasi koagulasi pada leukemia

Kerangka Konsep

Bentuk skema, dapat serupa/tidak

Kerangka Teori
Disertai dengan narasi pendek
Memasukkan:
- hubungan variabel
- konsep / area yang akan ditel

KERANGKA KONSEP
LEUKEMIA

AKTIVASI TROMBOSIT:
P-selectin (CD62p)

MOLEKUL ADHESI: CD11b

LEUKOSITOSIS

AGREGAT NEUTROFIL-TROMBOSIT
AGREGAT MONOSIT-TROMBOSIT

?
AKTIVASI
KOAGULASI (F1+2)

Kerangka konsep penelitian

II. Literature Review

Detailed, but only aspects relevant to the substance of

the research; no need to Review all aspects of the disease
or problem under investigation

Requirement: good literature search and appraisaloriginal articles, reviews, quantitative reviews,
metaanalyses

Most recent publications (internet search).

Older ones ONLY for historical perspective

Be meticulous. Needs repeated revisions, including

languages: words,sentences, paragraphs,
literature citations etc.

III. Methods

Design(s): one study may have more

than 1 design
Time and place
Population: target population, source
Criteria for inclusion and exclusion
Sample: sampling techniques, sample
size
All must be elaborated explicitly in g

Methods (cont.ed)

Procedures: equipment, drugs,

randomization, blinding, measurements,
interventions, follow-up etc.
Variable identification: independent variables,
dependent variables, confounders etc.
Definitions- Operational Definition of
Variables
Ethic Committee Approval
Plan of analyses: types of test, computer
programs used, p value, confidence interval,
etc.

Study Design Sequence

Case Report
Case series
Cross-sectional
Surveys

Case control
Cohort
Retrospective Coho

Analytic studies

Experimental
Randomized Tials
Quasi-experimenta

Study Designs
Descriptive
Case Report
Case Series
Descriptive
Epidemiology

Analytic

Ecologic Study

RCT

Before-After Study
Cross-sectional Study
Case-Crossover Study
Case-Control Study
Cohort Study

Desain Penelitian
Observational

Interventional

Laporan kasus Uji Klinis

Seri kasus Intervensi
Studi Potong Lintang
Studi Kasus-kontrol
Studi Kohort

Study Design Sequence

Hypothesis Formation
Case Report

Case Series

Descriptive
Epidemiologi

Analytic
Animal
Epidemiology Study
Hypothesis Testing
Clinical
Trials

Cohort

CaseControl

CrossSectional

Lab.
Stu
dy

Increasing knowledge of
Disease/Exposure

Study Designs
Descriptive Studies Develop Hypothesis

Case-Control
Studies

Investigate its
relationship
to outcomes

Cohort Studies

Define its meaning

with exposures

Clinical Trials

Test Link
Experimentally

IV. Hasil Penelitian

Melaporkan hasil penelitian secara ke

Keterbatasan penelitian
Kekuatan penelitian mutiara2 pe
Lama studi
Karakteristik Penelitian
Data Hasil Penelitian terkait:
Tujuan Penelitian
Hipotesis
Dalam bentuk Tabel, Diagram, Na

V. Pembahasan

Pembahasan mengenai:
Subjek Penelitian
Data Hasil Penelitian terkait dengan:
Benang Merah
- Tujuan penelitian
- Hipotesis penelitian Subjudul/Heading
Penjelasan mengenai Hasil Penelitian terka
- Hasil penelitian di tempat lain
- Hasil penelitian yang memperkuat
teori yang sudah ada ataupun yang
tidak sesuai dengan teori/keadaan ya
sudah ada
Hasil Penelitian Terkait Hypothesis Testing
Simpulan
Benang Merah
Subjudul/Heading
Saran
Ringkasan
Summary

Simpulan

Berisi Pokok-pokok Temuan pada P

Tidak memasukkan hal-hal yang tid

merupakan temuan penelitian ini

Critical Apraisal / Kritik Jurnal

Alasan dilakukan penelitian ?
Tujuan ?
Hipotesis ?
Tipe desain studi ?
Populasi ?
Jumlah sampel ?
Adekuat ?
Cara pengambilan sampel ?
Nilai alpha ?

Critical Apraisal / Kritik Jurnal

Bias ?
Kriteria inklusi ? Kriteria eksklusi ?
Variabel-variabel ?
Cara pengukuran ? Standarisasi alat ukur ?
Kesesuaian jenis analisis statistik ?
Hasil ?
Interval kepercayaan ?
Kesimpulan ?
Hasil dapat dipercaya ?
Hasil dapat dipraktekkan di tempat kita ?

Thank Yo

Matur Nuwun