Definitions & Examples

a
b

A
++++
d -----

C3

Q
V

C1

C2

Today
Calculate E from V
Definition of Capacitance
Example Calculations-Parallel Plate
Capacitor
Combinations of Capacitors
Capacitors in Parallel
Capacitors in Series

Lightning!

Last time
Potential energy of a test charge in external field:
potential x test charge (q)

U qV
Conductors in E-fields become equipotential
surfaces/volumes

E-field always normal to surface of conductor

E from V?
We can obtain the electric field E from the potential V
by inverting our previous relation between E and V:
V
Ex
x

V
Ey
y

r x dx

V+dV

V
Ez
z

dV E x dx E x dx

Expressed as a vector, E is the negative gradient of V

E V

Cartesian coordinates:

V
V
V
V
x
y
z
x
y
z

Spherical coordinates:

V
1 V
1 V
V
r

r
r
r sin

Note: The units of E [= N/C] can be expressed [V/m].

Preflight 7:

This graph shows the electric

potential at various points
along the x-axis.

2) At which point(s) is the electric field zero?

A

E from V: an Example
Consider the following electric potential:
V(x, y, z) 3x2 2xy z2

What electric field does this describe?

Ex

V
6 x 2 y
x

Ey

V
2 x
y

... expressing this as a

vector:

Ez

V
2z
z

E ( 6 x 2 y ) x 2xy 2 zz

Something for you to try:

Can you use the dipole potential to obtain the
dipole field? Try it in spherical coordinates ...
you should get (see Appendix A):

2aq

E
2
cos

sin

4 0 r 3

Lecture 7, ACT 1
1

The electric potential in a region of space is given by

V x 3x 2 x 3
The x-component of the electric field Ex at x = 2 is
(a)

Ex = 0

(b)

Ex > 0

(c)

Ex < 0

Lecture 7, ACT 1
The electric potential in a region of space is given by

V x 3x 2 x 3
The x-component of the electric field Ex at x = 2 is
(a)
Ex = 0
(b)
Ex > 0
(c)
Ex < 0
We know

V(x) everywhere

To obtain Ex everywhere, use

E V
V
Ex
x

E x 6 x 3 x 2

E x 2 12 12 0

The Bottom Line

If we know the electric field E everywhere,
B

WAB
VB VA E dl
VB V A
q0
A

allows us to calculate the potential function V everywhere

(keep in mind, we often define VA = 0 at some convenient place)

If we know the potential function V everywhere,

E V
allows us to calculate the electric field

E everywhere

Units for Potential! 1 Joule/Coul = 1 VOLT

Capacitance
A capacitor is a device whose purpose is to store electrical
energy which can then be released in a controlled manner
during a short period of time.
A capacitor consists of 2 spatially separated conductors
which can be charged to +Q and -Q respectively.
The capacitance is defined as the ratio of the charge on
one conductor of the capacitor to the potential difference
between the conductors.
[The unit of capacitance is
Q
C
the Farad: 1 F = 1C/V]
V
The capacitance belongs only to the capacitor,
independent of the charge and voltage.

Example:
Parallel Plate Capacitor
Calculate the capacitance. We
assume + , - charge densities
on each plate with potential
difference V:

A
++++
d -----

Q
C
V

Need Q:

Q A

Need V:

from defn:

Vb Va E dl

Use Gauss Law to find E

Recall:

Two Infinite Sheets

(into screen)

Field outside the sheets is zero

Gaussian surface encloses
zero net charge
Field inside sheets is not zero:
Gaussian surface encloses
non-zero net charge Q A

E dS AEinside

+
+
E=0
+
+
A +
+
+
+
+
A
+
+

- E=0
E

Example: Parallel Plate Capacitor

(see Appendix B for other examples)
Calculate the capacitance:

Assume +Q, -Q on plates with

potential difference V.

++++
d

Q
E

0 A 0

Q
Vb Va E dl Ed
d
A 0
a
b

-----

Q A 0

V
d

As hoped for, the capacitance of this capacitor

depends only on its geometry (A,d).
Note that C ~ length; this will always be the case!

Practical Application: Microphone

(condenser)
d
Current sensor
Battery
Moveable plate

Fixed plate

Sound waves incident

pressure oscillations
oscillating plate separation d
1
oscillating capacitance ( C ~ )
d
oscillating charge on plate
oscillating current in wire ( I dQ )
dt
oscillating electrical signal

See this in action at http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/microphone/ !

Lecture 7, ACT 2
In each case below, a charge of +Q is placed on a solid
spherical conductor and a charge of -Q is placed on a
concentric conducting spherical shell.
Let V1 be the potential difference between the spheres with (a1, b).
Let V2 be the potential difference between the spheres with (a2, b).
What is the relationship between V1 and V2? (Hint think about
parallel plate capacitors.) -Q
-Q
+Q

+Q

a1

(a) V1 < V2

(b) V1 = V2

a2

(c) V1 > V2

Lecture 7, ACT 2
In each case below, a charge of +Q is placed on a solid
spherical conductor and a charge of -Q is placed on a
concentric conducting spherical shell.
Let V1 be the potential difference between the spheres with (a1, b).
Let V2 be the potential difference between the spheres with (a2, b).
What is the relationship between V1 and V2? (Hint think about
parallel plate capacitors.) -Q
-Q
+Q

+Q

a1

(a) V1 < V2

(b) V1 = V2

a2

(c) V1 > V2

What we have here are two spherical capacitors.

Intuition: for parallel plate capacitors: V = (Q/C) = (Qd)/(A 0).
Therefore you might expect that V1 > V2 since (b-a1) > (b-a2).
In fact this is the case as we can show directly from the definition of V!

Capacitors in Parallel
a

a
Q1

V C1

-Q1

Q2
-Q2

C2

-Q
b

Find equivalent capacitance C in the sense that

no measurement at a, b could distinguish the
above two situations.
Aha! The voltage across the two is the same.
C2
Q1 Q2
Q2 Q1

Parallel Combination: V
C1
C1 C2
Q Q1 Q2 Q1 (C1 C2 )
C

Equivalent Capacitor:
V
V
C1V

C C1 C2

Preflight 7:
Two identical parallel plate
capacitors are shown in an endview in A) of the figure. Each
has a capacitance of C.

4) If the two are joined together as shown in B), forming a

single capacitor, what will be the final capacitance?
a) C/2

b) C

c) 2C

Capacitors in Series
+Q -Q
a

C1

+Q

C2
-Q

+Q

-Q

Find equivalent capacitance C in the sense that no

measurement at a, b could distinguish the above two situations.

The charge on C1 must be the same as the charge on

C2 since applying a potential difference across ab
cannot produce a net charge on the inner plates of
C1 and C2
assume there is no net charge on node between C1 and C2
Q
V

RHS:
ab
1
1
1
C

Q Q
C C1 C2
V

LHS:
ab
1
2
C1 C2

Examples:
Combinations of Capacitors
a

C3
b

C1

C2

How do we start??
Recognize C3 is in series with the parallel
combination on C1 and C2. i.e.,
1 1
1

C C3 C1 C2

C3 (C1 C2 )
C1 C2 C3

Preflight 7:
C

C
Configuration A

Configuration B

Configuration C

Three configurations are constructed using identical capacitors

6) Which of these configurations has the lowest overall capacitance?
a) Configuration A
b) Configuration B
c) Configuration C

Preflight 7:
A circuit consists of three unequal capacitors C1, C2, and C3 which are
connected to a battery of emf The capacitors obtain charges Q1 Q2,
Q3, and have voltages across their plates V1, V2, and V3. Ceq is the
equivalent capacitance of the circuit.

8) Check all of the following

that apply:
a) Q1= Q2

b) Q2= Q3

e) V1 < V2

f) Ceq > C1

c) V2= V3

d) E = V1

Lecture 7, ACT 3
What is the equivalent capacitance, Ceq, of the
combination shown?
o

Ceq

(a) Ceq = (3/2)C

(b) Ceq = (2/3)C

(c) Ceq = 3C

Lecture 7, ACT 3
What is the equivalent capacitance, Ceq, of the
combination shown?
o

Ceq

(b) Ceq = (2/3)C

(a) Ceq = (3/2)C

1 1 1

C1 C C

C
C1
2

(c) Ceq = 3C

C1

C
C 3
Ceq C C
2 2

Lightning (a.k.a. the atmosphere is a BIG capacitor!!)

+
_

+
_

+
_

Collisions produce
charged particles.
The heavier
particles (-) sit near
the bottom of the
cloud; the lighter
particles (+) near
the top.

Stepped
Leader
Negatively
charged
electrons
begin
zigzagging
downward.

Attraction
As the stepped
leader nears
the ground, it
draws a
streamer of
positive charge
upward.

Flowing
Charge
As the leader
and the
streamer come
together,
powerful
electric current
begins flowing

t ~ 30ms

Factoids: V ~ 200 M volts

I ~ 40, 000 amp

Contact!
Intense wave of
positive charge,
a return stroke,
travels upward
at 108 m/s

P ~ 1012 W

Summary
A Capacitor is an object with two spatially separated conducting
surfaces.
The definition of the capacitance of such an object is:
C

Q
V

The capacitance depends on the geometry :

-Q

A
++++
d ----Parallel Plates

A
d

+Q

-Q

+Q

a
b

Cylindrical
L
C
ln(b / a )

Spherical
ab
C
ba

Now
Review items :
Capacitors (series and parallel)
Calculate Energy Stored in Capacitor
Calculate Energy Density in Electric Field
Define Dielectric Constant
Modify Gauss Law to include Dielectrics

Summary of important capacitor geometries

The definition of the capacitance relates Q to V via C:

Q
V

The capacitance depends on the geometry:

-Q

A
++++
d ----Parallel Plates

A
C o
d

+Q

+Q

-Q

a
b

Cylindrical

2 o L
b
ln
a

Spherical

ab
C 4 o
ba

In SI unit system:
C has units of Farads or F (1F = 1C/V)
o has units of F/m

ACTIVITY 1
What is the relationship between V0 and V in the
systems shown below?
+Q

V0

(Area A)

+Q
d

-Q

(a) V = (2/3)V0

(Area A)

d/3

V
-Q

(b) V = V0

conductor

d/3

(c) V = (3/2)V0

ACT 1
What is the relationship between V0 and V in the
systems shown below?
+Q

V0

(Area A)

+Q
d

-Q

(a) V = (2/3)V0

(Area A)

d/3

V
-Q

(b) V = V0

conductor

d/3

(c) V = (3/2)V0

The electric field in the conductor = 0.

The electric field everywhere else is: E = Q/(A 0)
To find the potential difference, integrate the electric field:

V0 E dl Ed

d
d
V E dl E 0 E
3
3
2
V Ed
3

ACT 1, Another Way

What is the relationship between V0 and V in the
systems shown below?
+Q

+Q

(Area A)

V0

(Area A)

d/3

d/3

-Q

-Q

(b) V = V0

(a) V = (2/3)V0

conductor

(c) V = (3/2)V0

The arrangement on the right is equivalent to capacitors (each

with
separation = d/3) in SERIES!!
+Q

+Q
d/3
d/3

-Q

Ceq

1
Ceq C
2
1 A 0
3 A 0 3

C0
2 d / 3 2 d
2

(Area A)

d/3

d/3

-Q

conductor

Q
Q
2

V0
Ceq 3 / 2 C0 3

Energy of a Capacitor
How much energy is stored in a charged capacitor?
Calculate the work provided (usually by a battery) to charge a
capacitor to +/- Q:
Calculate incremental work dW needed to add charge dq to capacitor
at voltage V (there is a trick here!):
-

q
dW V (q ) dq dq
C

The total work W to charge to Q is then given by:

Q

1
1 Q2
W qdq
C0
2 C

In terms of the voltage V:

Look at this!
Two ways to write W

1
CV 2
2

Capacitor Variables

The total work to charge to Q equals the energy U stored in

the capacitor:
Q
1
1 Q2
U q dq
Look at this!
C0
2 C
Two ways to write U

In terms of the voltage V:

You can do one of two things to a capacitor :

hook it up to a battery

specify V and Q follows

Q CV

put some charge on it

specify Q and V follows

Q
V
C

1
U CV 2
2

Question!
Suppose the capacitor shown here is
charged to Q and then the battery is
disconnected.

A
++++
d -----

Now suppose I pull the plates further apart so that the final
separation is d1.

How do the quantities Q, C, E, V, U change?

Q:
C:
E:
V:
U:

How much do these quantities change?.. exercise for

student!!
d
d1
d1
C

C
V

V
U

U
1
Answers:
1
1
d1
d
d

remains the same.. no way for charge to leave.

decreases.. since capacitance depends on geometry
remains the same... depends only on charge density
increases.. since C , but Q remains same (or d but E the same)
increases.. add energy to system by separating

Related Question

Suppose the battery (V) is kept

attached to the capacitor.
Again pull the plates apart from d
to d1.

A
++++
d -----

Now what changes?

C:
V:
Q:
E:
U:

How much do these quantities change?.. exercise for

student!!
d
d
d
E

E
C

C
U

U
1
1
1
Answers:
d
d1
d1
1

decreases (capacitance depends only on geometry)

must stay the same - the battery forces it to be V
must decrease, Q=CV charge flows off the plate
V

must decrease (
,
)
D
E0
2
must decrease (U 12 CV )

Preflight 8:

Two identical parallel plate capacitors are connected to a battery, as

shown in the figure. C1 is then disconnected from the battery, and the
separation between the plates of both capacitors is doubled.
2) What is the relation between the charges on the two capacitors ?
a) Q1 > Q2

b) Q1 = Q2

c) Q1 < Q2

3) How does the electric field between the plates of C2 change as

separation between the plates is increased ? The electric field:
a) increases

b) decreases

c) doesnt change

Preflight 8:

Two identical parallel plate capacitors are connected to a battery,

as shown in the figure. C1 is then disconnected from the battery,
and the separation between the plates of both caps is doubled.
5) What is the relation between the voltages on the two capacitors?
a) V1 > V2

b) V1 = V2

c) V1 < V2

ACT 2
Two identical parallel plate capacitors are connected to a battery.
C1 is then disconnected from the battery and the separation between the
plates of both capacitors is doubled.

2d

C1

C2

2d

What is the relation between the U1, the energy stored in C1, and
the U2, energy stored in C2?

(a) U1 < U2

(b) U1 = U2

(c) U1 > U2

ACT 2
Two identical parallel plate capacitors are connected to a battery.
C1 is then disconnected from the battery and the separation between the
plates of both capacitors is doubled.

2d

C1

C2

2d

What is the relation between the U1, the energy stored in C1, and
the U2, energy stored in C2?

(a) U1 < U2

(b) U1 = U2

(c) U1 > U2

What is the difference between the final states of the two capacitors?
The charge on C1 has not changed.
The voltage on C2 has not changed.
The energy stored in C1 has definitely increased since work must be
done to separate the plates with fixed charge, they attract each other.
The energy in C2 will actually decrease since charge must leave in order
to reduce the electric field so that the potential
remains the same.
2
1 Q0
1
1
2
Later:
U

2
U
U

C
V

U0
C

C
Initially:
1
0
2
2 0
1
2
2 C1
2
2

Energy Density
Claim: the expression for the energy density of the
electrostatic field
1
u 0E 2
2
is general and is not restricted to the special case of the
constant field in a parallel plate capacitor.

Example (and another exercise for the student!)

Consider E- field between surfaces of cylindrical
capacitor:
Calculate the energy in the field of the capacitor by
integrating the above energy density over the volume of
the space between cylinders.

1
1
U 0 E 2 dV 0 E 2 r dr dl etc.
2
2
Compare this value with what you expect from the
general expression:
1
W CV 2
2

Dielectrics
Empirical observation:
Inserting a non-conducting material between the plates of a
capacitor changes the VALUE of the capacitance.

Definition:
The dielectric constant of a material is the ratio of the
capacitance when filled with the dielectric to that without it:

C
C0

values are always > 1 (e.g., glass = 5.6; water = 78)

They INCREASE the capacitance of a capacitor (generally

good, since it is hard to make big capacitors)
They permit more energy to be stored on a given capacitor
than otherwise with vacuum (i.e., air):

C0V 2
CV 2
U

U
2
2

Parallel Plate Example

Now insert material with dielectric

constant .

Electric field decreases also:

V
V
E
E
0 0
d
d

Voltage decreases from V0 to:

V
Q
Q
V

0
C C0

Capacitance increases C = C0

+++++++++++++++
+

Charge Q remains constant

The potential difference is V0 = Q / C0.

---------------

E0

Disconnect from battery

V0

+++++++++++++++

Deposit a charge Q on parallel plates

filled with vacuum (air)capacitance
C0.

---------------

Note: The field only

decreases when the
charge is held constant!

Parallel Plate Example, assuming Q

constant
Q
-------------

+++++++++++++

+ + +
- -

modify Gauss Law, see Appendix

E0

+
-

The molecules partially align with

the field so that their negative
charge tends toward the positive
plate.
The field due to this rearrangement
inside the dielectric (a la dipole)
opposes the original field and is
therefore responsible for the
reduction in the effective field.
Some of the original field lines now
end on charges in the dielectric

V0

+
-

How can field decrease if charge

remains the same?
Answer: the dielectric becomes
polarized in the presence of the field
due to Q.

+++++++++++++

- + +
+
- +
-

HOW ABOUT GAUSS' LAW?

-------------

V0
V

E0
E

Two identical parallel plate capacitors are given the same charge Q,
after which they are disconnected from the battery. After C2 has
been charged and disconnected it is filled with a dielectric.
Preflight 8:

7) Compare the voltages of the two capacitors.

a) V1 > V2

b) V1 = V2

c) V1 < V2

8) Compare the electric fields between the plates of both

capacitors.
a) E1 > E2

b) E1 = E2

c) E1 < E2

Preflight 8:

10) When we insert the dielectric into the capacitor C2 we do:

a) positive work

b) negative work

c) no work

Recall the meaning of negative work the energy of the system is

reduced. The dielectric is sucked into the capacitor. When the charge
is constant, the total energy of the capacitor decreases because the
presence of the dielectric increases the capacitance . It turns out that
the dielectric is pulled in even if the voltage is held constant, e.g., via
a battery. On a microscopic scale the force on the dielectric arises due
to fringing fields at the edges of the capacitor.

Why Salt Dissolves

Normally NaCl is in a rigid
crystal structure, maintained
by the electrostatic attraction
between the Na+ and Cl- ions.

Water has a very high

dielectric constant (78). This
reduces the field between the
atoms, hence their attraction
to each other. The crystal
lattice comes apart and
dissolves.
Note: This should leave lots of ions in the water

Summary
Capacitors in parallel and in series
energy stored in a charged capacitor
work done to assemble charges on plates

energy stored in electric field

capacitor example
field energy density J/m3

1
1 Q2
2
W CV
2
2 C

1
1 r r
2
u 0 E 0 E E
2
2

electric response of dielectric materials

atomistic view: polarized atoms -> dielectric constant
modified Gauss Law

o dS E qenclosed
dielectric constant

Replace o with