UNIT- V

INTRODUCTION

Arectifieris

an

electrical

convertsalternating
periodically

reverses

device

current(AC),
direction,

that
which

todirect

current(DC), which is in only one direction, a

process known asrectification.

TYPES OF RECTIFIERS
Half wave Rectifier
Full wave Rectifier
Bridge Rectifier

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

In half wave rectification, either the positive

or negative half of the AC wave is
passed, while the other half is blocked.

Because

only

one

half

of

the

input

waveform reaches the output, it is very

inefficient if used for power transfer.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WORKING

ANIMATION

HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION

OUTPUT DC VOLTAGE CALCULATION

The output DC voltage of a half wave rectifier

can be calculated with the following two ideal
equations

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the

input waveform to one of constant polarity
(positive or negative) at its output.

Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of

the input waveform to DC (direct current), and is
more efficient.0

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WORKING ANIMATION

FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION

In a circuit with a non - center tappedtransformer,

four diodes are required instead of the one
needed for half-wave rectification.

For single-phase AC, if the transformer is centertapped, then two

diodes back-to-back

(i.e.

anodes-to-anode or cathode-to-cathode) can form a

full-wave rectifier.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER USING 4

DIODES

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER USING TRANSFORMER AND 2

DIODES

FORMULA

Theaverageandroot-mean-squareoutput
voltages of an ideal single phase full wave
rectifier can be calculated as:

OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF THE FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

ANIMATION

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A bridge rectifier makes use of four

diodes in a bridge arrangement to
achieve full-wave rectification.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

BRIDGE RECTIFIER WORKING

ANIMATION

INTRODUCTION
OSCILLATOR CHARACTERISTICS
RC CIRCUITS
LC CIRCUITS
CRYSTAL CIRCUITS
RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
UNDESIRED OSCILLATIONS
TROUBLESHOOTING
DIRECT DIGITAL SYNTHESIS

DC EQUIVALENT FOR THE

BJT AMPLIFIER

DC Equivalent Circuit
All capacitors in the original amplifier circuit are replaced by
open circuits, disconnecting vI, RI, and R3 from the circuit
and leaving RE intact. The the transistor Q will be replaced
by its DC model.

Oscillators convert dc to ac.

dc in

Oscillator

ac out

Some possible output waveforms

A phase-shift oscillator based

on a common-emitter amplifier
RL

Feedback
3

C
R

VCC

RB

3 RC networks provide a total phase shift

The supply tap is a

signal ground. There
o
is a 180 phase shift
across the tank.
+VCC
180o

+VCC
signal
ground

feedback

tank circuit

The Hartley oscillator is LC controlle

This is called a Colpitts oscillator.

+VCC
The capacitive
leg of the tank
is tapped.

feedback

Quartz is a piezoelectric material.

Quartz crystalSlab cut from Schematic
crystal
symbol

Electrodes
and leads

A UJT relaxation oscillator

provides two waveforms.

RC f

+VBB

RC

Exponential sawtooth
VP

Pulse

This multivibrator is also RC controlled.

= 0.69RC
= 0.69 x 47 k x 3.3 nF
= 0.107 ms
t = 2 = 0.214 ms
f = 1/t = 4.67 kHz

0V

Part C
Integrators and Differentiators
General Op-Amp
Analysis
Differentiators
Integrators
Comparison

Ideal Differentiator

Phase shift
j/2
-
Net-/2

analysis :
Zf
Rf
Vout

j R f Cin
1
Vin
Z in
j Cin

Amplitude
changes by a
factor of
RfCin

Ideal Integrator

Phase shift
1/j-/2
-
Net/2

Amplitude
changes by a
factor of
1/RinCf

analysis :
Zf
Vout

Vin
Z in

j C f
Rin

j RinC f

Comparison

The op amp circuit will invert the signal and multiply the
mathematical amplitude by RC (differentiator) or 1/RC
(integrator)

WIEN-BRIDGE OSCILLATOR WITH

DIODE STABILIZATION
Rf
R1

Vo

Ref:06103104HKN
EE3110 Oscillator

31

COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
R

Equivalent circuit

C1
C2

L
C2

+
V

gmV

C1

Ref:06103104HKN
EE3110 Oscillator

32

In the equivalent circuit, it is assumed that:

Linear small signal model of transistor is used

The transistor capacitances are neglected

Input resistance of the transistor is large enough

RC PHASE-SHIFT
OSCILLATOR
R
f

R1

C
R

C
R

Using an inverting amplifier

The additional 180o phase shift is provided by an RC
phase-shift network

Ref:06103104HKN
EE3110 Oscillator

33

APPLICATION OF
OSCILLATORS

Oscillators are used to generate signals, e.g.

Ref:06103104HKN
EE3110 Oscillator

34

Used as a local oscillator to transform the RF signals

to IF signals in a receiver;
Used to generate RF carrier in a transmitter
Used to generate clocks in digital systems;
Used as sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO.

LECTURE 3 OSCILLATOR

Introduction of Oscillator

Linear Oscillator

Ref:06103104HKN
EE3110 Oscillator

35

Wien Bridge Oscillator

RC Phase-Shift Oscillator
LC Oscillator
Stability

CAPACITORS

(From EET 1150, DC Circuits)

Capacitors are measured in farads (F).
Typical values range from 10 pF to 1000 F.
Value may be printed directly on the body
(as above) or using a numeric code.
Schematic symbol:

RESISTORS

(From EET 1150, DC Circuits)

Resistors are measured in ohms ().
Typical values range from 10 to 10 M.
Value is coded on the body using a color
code. Above, green-blue-red = 5.6 k.
Schematic symbol:

RESISTORS AND CAPACITORS

Resistors and capacitors are often

used to control the timing of
monostable and astable
multivibrators.

MULTIVIBRATOR

A multivibrator is a circuit whose output

changes between two digital levels.

Three types:
Bistable: Two stable states (latches and flip-flops)
Monostable (also called one-shot): One stable state
Astable (also called oscillator): No stable state

TYPES OF 555-TIMER CIRCUITS

5V

5V

Ra

DIS

VCC

DIS

VCC

1K

LED

CV

CV

LED

0.01uF

NE555
C

THR
TR

NE555

0.01uF

THR
TR

Q
6
2

GND

6
2

GND

Rb

20 March 2007
Electronic Instrumentation

Monostable Multivibrator (or oneshot) puts out one pulse each time
the switch is connected

40

Astable
Multivibrator puts
out a continuous
sequence of pulses

20 March 2007
Electronic Instrumentation

41

Inside the 555 Timer

Generation of Square and

Triangular Waveforms
Bistable Multivibrators

A 1

R1 ( R1 R2 )
Figure 13.17 A positive-feedback loop capable of
bistable operation.

Figure 13.18 A physical analogy for the operation of

the bistable circuit. The ball cannot remain at the top
of the hill for any length of time (a state of unstable
equilibrium or metastability); the inevitably present
disturbance will cause the ball to fall to one side or the
other, where it can remain indefinitely (the two stable
states).