Topic 2: Mining

From a series of 5 lectures on

Metals, minerals, mining and (some of) its problems
prepared for London Mining Network
by
Mark Muller
mmuller.earthsci@gmail.com
24 April 2009

Outline of Topic 2:
Surface mining methods
Open-pit mines
Slope failure in open-pit mines
Open-cast mines
Underground mining methods:
Room-and-pillar mining
Longwall mining
Rockburst hazard in deep longwall mining
Surface subsidence above shallow longwall mining
Block-cave mining
Mining using in-situ leaching
Other mining methods: hydraulic mining, dredging

Anatomy of a mine:
Grasberg, West Papua

0.2 million tons of

tailings are dumped
into the Ajkwa river
system every day,
causing massive
sedimentation on
coastal floodplains
(Lottermoser, 2007)
No smelter and refinery.
This project delivers
mineral-concentrate.

Figure from Spitz and Trudinger, 2009.

Choice of mining and processing methods:

The simple aim in selecting and implementing a particular mine plan is
always to mine a mineral deposit so that profit is maximised given
the unique characteristics of the deposit and its location, current market
prices for the mined mineral, and the limits imposed by safety,
economy, environment (Text book definition: Spitz and Trudinger,
2009, my italics) (Social limits are not mentioned specifically!)

Mineral extraction: from mining to metal

Mining

Mineral
concentrate

METAL EXTRACTION

Metal

Figure from Spitz and Trudinger, 2009.

Schematic of common mining methods

Simple in concept, highly engineered for efficiency.

Very high waste rock volume.
Better safety record.

Used for laterally extensive deposits.

Overburden cast directly back into mined out panels.
Rehabilitation keeps pace with mining.

Reduced waste rock production.

Poor safety record.

Used for soluble ores: uranium, salt, potash.

Minimal waste production: only water wastes, no solids.

Figure from Spitz and Trudinger, 2009.

Choice of mining method:

The choice of mining method depends on many factors, including:
(i) Shape of the orebody: tabular, cylindrical, spherical.
(ii) Orientation of the orebody: sub-horizontal, sub-vertical.
(iii) Continuity of the orebody.
(iv) Ore-grade: high-grade, low-grade.
(v) Distribution of ore-bearing minerals within the orebody: massive or
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)

disseminated (with a cut-off grade).

Depth to the orebody.
Strength of the orebody and overburden/host-rocks rocks.
Area of land available for waste disposal open-pit mines cover a
larger surface area and generate a greater volume of wastes.
Impacts on surface: environmental, surface drainage and sub-surface

aquifers, land-use changes, social.

(x) Rehabilitation concerns.
(xi) Projected production rates.
(xii) Capital costs, rate of (financial recovery), cash-flow.
(xiii) Safety concerns surface mining methods have a better safety
record.

Mining methods:
Surface mining
Open-pit mining
Strip or open-cast mining
includes superficial deposit mining: nickel laterite,
bauxite, mineral sands, alluvial diamonds
Underground mining
Block-caving
Sub-level block-caving
Longwall
Room-and-pillar (Bord-and-pillar), Stope-and-pillar
Longwall Top Coal Caving (LTCC) (China).
In-situ leaching
Dredging from floating vessels: alluvial deposits, mineral sands.
Hydraulic mining: often associated with placer deposits and tailings
reprocessing.

Surface mining:
Surface mining is the predominant exploitation method worldwide.
In the USA, surface mining contributes about 85% of all minerals
exploitation (excluding petroleum and natural gas). Almost all
metallic ore (98%) and non-metallic ore (97%), and 61% of the coal is
mined using surface methods in the USA (Hartman and Mutmansky,
2002).
Surface mining requires large capital investment (primarily expensive
transportation equipment), but generally results in:
- High productivity (i.e., high output rate of ore)
- Low operating costs
- Safer working conditions and a better safety record than
underground mining

Comparison of waste production for surface and underground mining:

Data are for USA in 1997 (from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002), in million tons.

Surface mining
Waste = 73% of total rock tonnage extracted
266% of ore tonnage extracted

Underground mining
Waste = 7% of total rock tonnage extracted
9% of ore tonnage extracted

Pit excavation initially generates huge volumes of waste rock that must be
removed to allow access the orebody, and to allow stable pit slopes to be
developed.

Various open-pit and orebody configurations

(i)

Flat lying seam or bed, flat terrain. Example

platinum reefs, coal.

(ii)

Massive deposit, flat terrain. Example ironore or sulphide deposits.

(iii)

Dipping seam or bed, flat terrain. Example

anthracite.

(iv)

Massive deposit, high relief. Example

copper sulphide.

(v)

Thick bedded deposits, little overburden, flat

terrain. Example iron ore, coal.

Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.

Open-pit mine: Chuquicamata copper mine, Regin de Antofagasta, Chile

Benches

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chuquicamata_panorama.jpg

Access ramps

Photo credit:Till Niermann

11 September 2008.

Slope failure

Dust

Locality: Regin de Antofagasta, Chile.

Pit dimensions: 4.3 km long x 3 km wide x 850 m deep.
Mining dates: 1915 - present
Total production: 29 million tons of copper to the end of 2007 (excluding Radomiro Tomi production).
For many years it was the mine with the largest annual production in the world, but was recently
overtaken by Minera Escondida (Chile). It remains the mine with the largest total cumulative production.
Production 2007: 896,308 fine metric tons of copper (Codelco, 2007).
Mining cost in 2007: 48.5 US per kg (2006), 73.0 US per kg (2007) (Codelco, 2007).
Employees: 8,420 as of 31st 2007 (Codelco, 2007).
Pre-tax profits: US$ 9.215 billion (2006), US$ 8,451 billion (2007) (Codelco, 2007).

Pit slope versus rock strength

Greater rock strength can support greater

bench heights resulting in a steeper pit, a
lower stripping ratio and less waste rock.

Pit depth versus pit diameter

A greater final pit depth requires a larger

diameter pit (assuming rock strength and pit
slope remains unchanged)
resulting in a higher stripping ratio and
more waste rock.

Figure from Spitz and Trudinger, 2009.

Open-pit slope failure case study groundwater problems

A slope failure occurred at the Cleo
Open Pit (Sunrise Dam Gold Mine,
Western Australia) in December 2000.
At the time of failure the pit-floor was at
100 m depth below surface.

Water table

100 m

Two critical factors played a role in

the failure:
The top of the water table is at a very
high level: only 30 m below surface
A strong layer of younger clay
sediments overlies weaker weathered
bedrock.
The failure is thought to be due to very
high pore fluid pressures in the
weathered bedrock that created an
instability at the interface between the
bedrock and the overlying clays, allowing
a slippage to occur (Speight, 2002).

Seepage and mineral

precipitation

Top of water table

Original configuration

Mud pile

Stiff clay

Weathered bedrock
high pore pressures
Plane of failure located at boundary
between bedrock and clay
Distance in meters

Figures modified from Speight, 2002.

Open-pit slope failure structural problems

Pre-mining geological structures, particularly fault planes, represent zones of potential
weakness in the rock mass, and are therefore zones of potential slope failure, and should be
taken into account when designing the mine.
Fault planes dipping towards the pit (as shown in the figure) present a greater risk than faults
dipping away from the pit.
Faults planes often provide passage-ways for water movement, and these waters, through the
process of weathering and chemical alteration of minerals, may reduce the strength of the rocks
on either side of the fault plane, and reduce the coefficient of friction along it.
The coefficient of friction (the traction or
grip) along the fault will determine
whether failure and slippage of rock down
the fault plane is likely.
The coefficient of friction may change with
time:
as water-flow patterns are affected by
mining
as faults are exposed by the removal of
rock, opening fluid pathways into faults
by the reduction of the mass of the rock
located above the fault plane.

Computer model of a potential failure plane in an

open-pit mine (From Little, 2006)

Schematic of open-cast coal mine

OVERBU
R

DIRE
CT

DEN

ION O

F AD

VANC
E

Dragline gathers overburden

and casts it back onto spoil
banks located behind the
current working face

Significant permanent waste dumps are not needed.

Mine rehabilitation can be carried out progressively at the same rate as mining.

Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.

Open-cast or strip mining:

Used for near-surface, laterally continuous, bedded deposits such as
coal, stratified ores such as iron ore, and surficial deposits (nickel
laterite or bauxite).
The pits are shallower that open-pit mines, and the overburden is hindcast directly into adjacent mined out panels.
It is a very low-cost, high-productivity method of mining.

Open-cast coal mining, Rhine Westphalia Germany

Simulated natural-color satellite
(ASTER) image of the Garzweiler
open-cast lignite (brown coal) mine
in North Rhine Westphalia, Germany.
The mine is named after the town
Garzweiler, which was located at the
center of the area being mined.
E
NC
VA
AD

8.5 km

Active mining

Photo credit: NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS,

and US/Japan ASTER Science Team, August 26, 2000.
http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery-detail.asp?name=Coal

Underground mining:
Generally underground mining is adopted when the orebody is too deep and
its not economically or technically feasible to use an open-pit:
Deepest hard-rock open pits are over 700 m deep (e.g., Palabora in South
Africa and Chuquicamata in Chile).
It is increasingly common to progress from open-pit to underground mining
of the same orebody.
Used where surface land use prohibits surface disruption (e.g., towns,
agricultural land, lakes, near-surface aquifers). Not always prioritised by
miners!

The major distinction between the different underground mining

methods is whether the mined out areas remain supported after
mining, or if they are allowed to collapse.

General anatomy of a deep underground mine

Both ore-rock and water are
allowed to feed to the bottom of the
mine under the force of gravity, and
from there are transported or
pumped to the surface.
Note the use of backfill in minedout areas to provide support for the
overlying rock. Backfill allows ore
recovery to be maximised, because
ore is not left in-place as support
pillars.
Backfill is generally a mixture of
cement with waste rock, sand or
tailings.

Figure from Spitz and Trudinger, 2009.

Supported underground mining: room-and-pillar layout

Pillars have been mined-out

in this area

Note the control of ventilation, i.e.,

the separation of contaminated
(used) and uncontaminated (fresh)
air using a variety of devices.

Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.

Supported underground mining Room-and-Pillar method:

The mining cavity is supported (kept open) by the strength of remnants
(pillars) of the orebody that are left un-mined.
Room-and-pillar mining method has a low recovery rate (a large
percentage of ore remains in place underground).
Used for tabular orebodies, with moderate dip: for example, coal and
evaporite (salt and potash) deposits.
It is an advantageous mining method for shallow orebodies as a means
of preventing surface subsidence. Historic, ultra-shallow underground
coal mines (< 30 m) nevertheless are characterised by surface
subsidence in the areas between pillars (e.g., Witbank coal field,
South Africa).
Pillars are sometimes mined on retreat from a working area, inducing
closure and caving of these working panels, and raising the risk of
surface subsidence.

Underground mining: room-and-pillar mining of thick seams benching

a
gw
n
i
ng
Ha

ll

all
w
ot
o
F

Different approaches allow either the top or

bottom part of the seam to be mined out first.
Note the hangingwall is above the mining
cavity, and the footwall is below it.

Figures from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.

Unsupported underground mining longwall mining method:

Longwall mining is suitable for tabular orebodies, with moderate dip (e.g.,
coal and stratiform hard-rock ores).
In unsupported mining, the mine-workings are supported temporarily
only for as long as needed to keep the active face open to mining.
After mining, the support (e.g. hydraulic props or wood packs) is
removed (or becomes crushed), and the mining cavities close up
under the pressure of the overburden material. The cavity closure
is either partial, for shallow mining, or complete, for deep level
mining.
While unsupported mining is advantageous in that it maximises ore
recovery (as little ore as possible is left behind) the method comes
with significant problems:
- Surface subsidence in the case of shallow mines
- Rockbursts underground, causing injury and death in deep level
mines.

Underground mining: longwall mining

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SL500_
01.jpg

SCHEMATIC OF LONGWALL PANEL

(HANGINGWALL STRIPPED AWAY FOR
ILLUSTRATIVE PURPOSES)

Protective screen
E
ANC
ADV

5
~1
0
m

Mechanised cutting machine on a

longwall coal-mining face.

Permanent support,
often timber packs, will
remain in place after
mining. With time, these
become deformed or
completely crushed as
part of the controlled
closure of the panel.

In hard-rock minerals mining

a scraper is pulled down
the length of the stope face
after drilling and blasting, to
collect the fragmented ore
rock.
Temporary support near
the working face: often
hydraulic props.

Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.

In coal mining, a mechanised

cutting device is run along
the length of the coal face.

Unsupported underground mining

v gh

Cartoon showing the driving

mechanisms of mininginduced seismicity.

Depth
below
surface

Virgin stress situation

at depth h:

v gh
h

The creation of a cavity

underground significantly
alters the virgin subsurface
stress (pressure) regime.

v gh

Depth
below
surface

h
Mining process:
blast & remove
material at the
stopes, tunnels

Mined out
h

v gh

Depth
below
surface

hh

Slip!

Removal of rock causes

stresses to redistribute,
stope closure & fracturing
Slip on new fractures and
pre-existing geological
features results in seismicity

The effect of mining depth on stope (cavity) closure

SURFACE

Shallow mining: partial closure

of cavity, and surface
subsidence above the mining.

Deep mining: complete closure

of cavity, extensive fracturing
around the cavity, with
associated rockbursts
(explosive release of seismic
energy effectively
earthquakes).

Beam width

Deep level gold mining, South Africa

1.5 m

Stope face with temporary support

Stopes (yellow):
on-reef
excavations
where the reef
(orebody) is
mined.
http://www.bullion.org.za/MiningEducation/Images/images/
CSIR 2006
Slide 28
CrossSectMine.jpg

www.csir.co.za

STOPE
STOPE

Aftermath of a rockburst in a deep-level tunnel showing complete tunnel closure. The

energy released by this event is equivalent to magnitude M = 3.4 earthquake.

Longwall mining with strike stabilising-pillars at South African gold mine

Plan view of tabular orebody showing mined and un-mined areas

Sub-shaft support pillar

Sub-shaft pillar boundary

SUB-SHAFT

Dip

Mined-out
stopes

Mined out
0 structures:
0.5 km
1.0 km
Geological
faults and dykes

Strike Pillars

1km

Strike pillars (unmined ore rock)

providing support for hangingwall

Mining strategy can make a difference to rockburst activity:

Underground seismicity (and rockburst rate) can be influenced by:
- The rate of advance of a stope face (slower advance is more favourable)
- The number of adjacent panels being mined simultaneously (smaller
number is more favourable)
- The angle at which the advancing face approaches geological
structures (preferably not parallel)
The last point highlights the need for detailed advanced knowledge of
geological structures. Miners are not always prepared to invest in high resolution
surveys (e.g., geophysical surveys) to achieve the level of detail required for safer mining.
Plan view of mining panels
ADVANCE

Seismicity and
rockbursts

Mined out

ADVANCE

Mined out
Fault

SUPPORT PILLAR

Unfavourable stoping layout and

progression of mining.

Fault
SUPPORT PILLAR

More favourable stoping layout and

progression of mining.

Underground longwall coal mining at Barapukuria Mine, NW Bangladesh

Coal production started in
October 2005.
Mining depth is approximately
400m.
To date 6 panels have been
mined, with a 3 m slice height.
Total production to date has not
exceeded 3 Mt coal (a small
proportion of the total 34 Mt
recovery planned over 30 years).

Plan view Barapukuria Coal Mine

(from levels 260 m to 420 m).
Figure from Islam et al., 2008.

Underground longwall coal mining at Barapukuria Mine, NW Bangladesh

SURFACE SUBSIDENCE
(NOT SHOWN TO SCALE)

SURFACE
110 m
WATER

WATER

ide e
bs
Ri ctur
f ra e
zon

COAL SEAM
IV

CAVITY

Ri
fra bsid
zo ctu e
n e re

400 m

440m

Schematic cross-section showing subsurface response to longwall mining cavity, and

subsidence at surface. Arrows show fluid-pathways downwards from the Dupi Tila acquifer
along mining induced fractures, into the mining panel.
Figure modified after Islam et al., 2008.

Underground longwall coal mining at Barapukuria Mine, NW

Bangladesh:
The impact on surface at Barapukuria is typical of many areas around the
world which have been undermined by longwall coal mining. Subsidence
problems are particularly associated with the sedimentary basins in
which coal is found (also evaporite NaCl and KCl deposits) as the
overburden is weaker than crystalline rocks. Underground coal mining
also tends to take place at shallower depths than many hard-rock mineral
mines.
Considering how little of the resource has been mined to date, the impact on the surface above
the mine at Barapukuria has been devastating:
Land subsidence of between 0.6 0.9 m has been reported over an area of about 1.2 km 2.
The water-table has dropped, leaving commonly used water reservoirs dry in 15 villages.
At least 81 houses have developed cracks in 5 villages.
Untreated mine water (acknowledged by the mine to contain phosphorous, arsenic and
magnesium) is passing through canals in farming areas.
The scale of the problem has the Bangladesh government currently considering the
establishment of a new coal city near Barapukuria that would provide housing and
(potential) employment to people whose livelihoods are at risk in 15 villages around the mine.

Barapukuria Mine plans to increase the total panel height mined to 18 m (it is currently
only 3 m) it is not clear whether this plan is going to be practically viable!!

Underground mining Block caving:

Block-caving method is employed generally for steeply dipping ores, and
thick sub-horizontal seams of ore. The method has application, for
example in sulphide deposits and underground kimberlite (diamond)
mining.

SURFACE
TOP OF OREBODY

Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.

An undercut tunnel is driven under the

orebody, with "drawbells" excavated
above. Caving rock falls into the
drawbells. The orebody is drilled and
blasted above the undercut to initiate the
caving process. As ore is continuously
removed from the drawbells, the
orebody continues to cave
spontaneously, providing a steady
stream of ore. If spontaneous caving
stops, and removal of ore from the
drawbells continues, a large void may
form, resulting in the potential for a
sudden and massive collapse and a
potentially catastrophic windblast
throughout the mine (e.g., the
Northparks Mine disaster, Australia).

Block-cave mining: Mud-rushes an under-reported hazard

Mud-rushes are sudden inflows of mud from ore drawpoints (or other underground openings), in
block-cave mines that are open to the surface. Considerable violence, in the form of an
airblast, is often associated with mud-rushes. Mud-rushes are (under-reported) hazardous
occurrences that have occurred frequently in mines in South Africa, as well as in Chile and Western
Australia, and have caused fatalities (Butcher et al., 2005).

Mud is produced by the

breakdown of rock in the
near-surface muckpile in the
presence of rainwater.

MUD

Kimberlite rock on diamond

mines is particularly
susceptible to weathering by
rainwater.

SCHEMATIC CUT-AWAY VIEW OF SUBLEVEL BLOCK-CAVE MINE

Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.

In-situ leaching (ISL)/ solution mining:

Used most commonly on evaporite (e.g. salt and potash) and sedimenthosted uranium deposits, and also to a far lesser extent to recover
copper from low-grade oxidised ore.
The dissolving solution is pumped into the orebody from a series of
injection wells, and is then pumped out, together with salts dissolved
from the orebody from a series of extraction (production) wells.
Metals and minerals commonly mined by solution mining methods.
Dissolving agent specified in each case. (From Hartman and
Mutmansky, 2002, and references therein).

Sodium cyanide: NaCN

Sulphuric acid: H2SO4
Hydrochloric acid: HCl
Ammonium carbonate
(alkali): (NH4)2CO3

Aside: The same reagents

are often used for
processing mined ores in
hydrometallurgical plants

In-situ leaching (ISL)/ solution mining:

Uranium deposits
Uranium minerals are soluble in acidic or alkaline solutions.
The production (pregnant) fluid consisting of the water soluble uranyl
oxyanion (UO22+) is subject to further processing on surface to precipitate
the concentrated mineral product U3O8 or UO3 (yellowcake).
Acid leaching fluid
sulphuric acid + oxidant
(nitric acid, hydrogen
peroxide or dissolved
oxygen)
or

UO22+

Alkali leaching fluid

ammonia, ammonium
carbonate/bicarbonate,
or sodium
carbonate/bicarbonate
The hydrology of the acquifer is
UO2
irreversibly changed: its porosity,
permeability and water quality. It is
regarded as being easier to restore
an acquifer after alkali leaching.

Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.

In-situ leaching (ISL)/ solution mining:

Evaporite deposits
Has been used for many decades to extract soluble evaporite salts such as
halite (NaCl), trona (3Na2O 4CO2), nahcolite (NaHCO3), epsomite
(MgSO4 7H2O), carnallite (KMgCl3 6H2O), borax (Na2B4O7 10H2O)
from buried evaporite deposits in UK, Russia, Germany, Turkey,
Thailand and USA).
A low salinity fluid, either heated or not, is injected underground directly into
the evaporite layer; the pregnant solutions (brines) are withdrawn
from recovery boreholes and are pumped into
evaporation ponds, to allow the salts to
crystallise out as the water evaporates.
Old underground mines, consisting typically of
room-and-pillar workings, are often further
mined using solutions to recover what remains
of the deposit, i.e., the pillars (with associated
surface subsidence risk).
Evaporation ponds, Arizona
Figure from Spitz and Trudinger, 2009.

In-situ leaching (ISL)/ solution mining:

Advantages:
No solid wastes.
Liquid wastes (low concentration brines with no market value) can be reinjected into the stratum being leached. Also reported that wastes are
sometimes injected into a separate acquifer (not good practice).
Problems:
Little control of the solution underground and difficulty in ensuring the process
solutions do not migrate away from the immediate area of leaching.
Main impact of evaporite ISL is derived from surface or shallow groundwater
contamination in the vicinity of evaporation ponds. Pregnant solutions can
be highly corrosive and pyhto-toxic, and can react with the soil materials
used in pond construction, and may migrate to surrounding areas through
seepage, overflow (both bad practice), and windblown spray.
Surface subsidence and the development of sink-holes may also occur after
prolonged solution mining if inadequate un-mined material is left to
support the overburden (bad practice).

Hydraulic mining:
Generally used for weakly cemented near-surface ore deposits.

Hydraulic mining of a placer gold deposit.

Note:
Riffle box
uses mercury
for gold
recovery

The Stang Intelligiant monitor

(operator controlled high
pressure water discharge point)
mounted on a skid
Figures from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.

Hydraulic mining tailings dam reprocessing

Kaltails project, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia
The project was established to reprocess and relocate tailings dams from the Boulder and
Lakewood areas of Kalgoorlie. The operations ceased after a decade of work in September
1999. The tailings dumps were hydraulically mined, reprocessed and stored in another
engineered impoundment located 10 km south east of Kalgoorlie. Recovery was by Carbon-inCircuit (CIC) and Carbon-in-Pulp (CIP) leach and absorption circuits.
Sixty million tons of
tailings were mined in
an area of 333
hectares (3.33 km2),
producing 695,000
ounces (19.7 tons) of
gold at an average oregrade of 0.33 g/ton.

Remaining part of a waste dump being hydraulically mined (Newmont Mining).

From TAILSAFE, 2004.

Dredging:
Used most often for mineral-sands and some near-shore alluvial diamond
mining operations.
Typical bucket-line dredge

www.tmd.ihcholland.com

Figure from Hartman and Mutmansky, 2002.

Oil sand mining:

Blurs the boundary between hydrocarbon and mineral extraction.
Canadas oil sands are the second single largest oil deposit on
Earth, second only to the large reserves in Saudi Arabia.
Resource has not been exploited significantly to date because of
the much higher costs associated with extracting the oil compared
to conventional borehole extraction in normal oil deposits.
The sands are either strip mined or the oil rich sands are heated
underground (steam) so that oil migrates to recovery boreholes.
In the case of mining, bitumen is recovered by washing the sands
in hot water, and is subsequently upgraded to a final crude in two
successive process: hydro-cracking and hydro-treating.
Ore-grade: approximately 2 tons of sand needed to produce 1 barrel
of oil.

Coal-bed methane and Underground Coal Gasification:

Please see my review included with course material:
Its not only about coal mining: Coal-bed methane (CBM) and
underground coal gasification (UCG) potential In Bangladesh.
For a summary of these methods, their advantages and disadvantages,
and an quantitative examination of the energy return provided by these
surface based, non-invasive alternatives to coal mining.