Chapter 7.

Application of
Thermodynamics to Flow Processes

7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (1)

Adiabatic, steady state, one-dimensional flow of

compressible fluid
No shaft work and no change in potential energy
Energy Balance Equation 1st law
0
0
0
Steady state 0
d (mU ) CV

1 2

H u zg m
dt
2

1 2
H u
2

dH udu

Q W
fs

Changes in enthalpy
directly go to
changes in velocity

7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (2)

Mass balance equation Continuity Equation

0

dmcv
m fs 0
dt

uA
d (m ) d ( ) 0
V

dV du dA

0
V
u
A

7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (3)

Thermodynamic Relations

dH TdS VdP
Replace V in terms of S and P
V
V
dV
dP
dS
P s
S P
V
V T

S P T P S P
V

VT
CP

1 V (eqn 3-2)

V T P
Cp
S
(eqn 6-17)

T P T

7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (4)

Relation from physics

2
2 P
c V

V
V
dV
dP
dS
P s
S P
dV T
V

dS 2 dP
V
CP
c

Velocity of sound in a medium

is related with pressure
derivative w.r.t volume
with const.S

7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (5)

Variables : dH, du, dV, dA, dS, dP

Equations : four
dH udu

dV du dA

0
V
u
A
dH TdS VdP
dV T
V

dS 2 dP
V
CP
c

dS, dA : independent
Can develop equations of
other derivatives with
dS and dA

7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (6)

(1 M 2 )VdP

u 2
u2
1
TdS dA 0

Cp
A

udu

u 2
2

M
Cp

1 M 2

TdS

dA 0

1 M

M : Mach number = u/c

7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (7)

2
2

dP

u
dS
u
dA
T
(1 M 2 )V
1

dx
C p dx A dx

u 2
2

M
du C p
1 dA
dS
u

2
2

dx
1 M
dx 1 M dx

According to second law, (dS/dx) >= 0

Pipe Flow

Pipe Flow : constant cross

u 2
1

C p dS
dP
T

dx
V (1 M 2 ) dx

u 2
2

M
du
Cp
dS
u
T
dx
1 M 2 dx

sectional area (dA/dx=0)

Subsonic flow :
(1 M 2 ) 0
Implies :
dP
0 Pressure drops
in the direction of flow
dx
du
0 Velocity increases
in the direction of flow
dx

Pipe flow

The velocity does not increase indefinitely.

If the velocity exceeds the sonic value,
dP
0
dx

du
0
dx

Supersonic flow
Shock wave and turbulence
Unstable flow

Nozzles

Flow within a pipe or a duct (variable cross-sectional

area)
Assume isentropic flow reversible flow
dP u 2
1

2
dx VA 1 M
du
u
1

2
dx
A 1 M

dA
dx
dA
dx

Nozzles

Converging

Diverging

Subsonic (M<1)

Supersonic(M>1)

Converging

Diverging

Converging

Diverging

dA/dx

dP/dx

du/dx

Converging Nozzle

Pressure

Maximum obtainable velocity = speed of sound

Increase in velocity requires increase in cross-sectional area in
diverging section
Converging nozzle can be used to deliver constant flow into a
region of variable pressure
P1 P2
As p2 decreases, velocity increases and maximum value at sonic
velocity.
Further decrease in p2 has no effect on velocity.

Velocity

Converging / Diverging Nozzle

Speed of sound is attained at the throat of

converging/diverging nozzle only when the pressure at
the throat is low enough that critical value of P2/P1
is reached.

See figure 7.1

Value of critial pressure ratio

dH udu
dH TdS VdP

udu VdP

dS=0 Adiabatic ,

PV const P1V1
PV
V

1 1

P2
2P1V1
2
2

1
u 2 u1 2 VdP
1
P1
P1

P2

1/

( 1) /

Value of critical pressure ratio

P2
2P1V1
2
2

1
u 2 u1 2 VdP
1
P1
P1

P2

( 1) /

Critical value u=c

2
2
2 P
u 2 c V

V
P
P

V
V S

u 22 P2V2

u1 0
S

u22 P2V2
P2 2

P1 1

Throttling Process

Throttling Process : Orifice , Partly closed valve,

porous plug,
Primary result : pressure drop
H 0, H 2 H1

For ideal gases, H=H(T) and no change in T

For real gases, slight change in T

Example 7.5 Joule-Thompson Coefficient

Temperature change resulting from a throttling a real

gas.
Joule-Thompson coefficient
T

Joule/Thomson Coefficient and other

properties

P
T

T H

H P P

1

CP

P P

J-T coeff. comes from the

pressure dependence of H

Joule/Thomson Coeff. from PVT relation

P
H

V
V T

RT 2 Z

P T

RT 2 Z

C P P T

With Cp and PVT

relation , any
property can be
predicted.

7.2 Turbines (Expanders)

Expansion of gas Production of Work

Internal Energy Kinetic Energy Work
1
Ws

Turbines (Expanders)

Heat effects are negligible, Inlet and outlet velocity

changes are small
W s m H m ( H 2 H1 )
Ws H ( H 2 H1 )
Normally T1, P1 and P2 are given
Maximum work : isentropic process (adiabatic
process)
Ws (isentropic ) (H ) S

Turbines (Expanders)

Turbine Efficiency

Ws
Ws (isentropic )

(H ) S

Turbine efficiency of properly designed turbine : 0.7 to

0.8

Turbines (Expanders)

Adiabatic expansion process in a turbine or expander

P1

(H ) S

P2
S

7.4 Compression Processes

Compression Devices : Rotating blades, Reciprocating

pistions
2
Ws

Compressors

Compressor efficiency : 0.7 to 0.8

Ws (isentropic )

Ws
(H ) S

Compressors

Adiabatic compression process

P1

(H ) S

P2
S