CHAPTER 4

Bridge Measurement

Bridge
Instruments/Circuits

circuit consists of a network of a four

resistance arms forming a closed circuit
with a DC source of current applied to
two opposite junctions and a current
detector connected to the other two
junctions.

Measurement of
Resistance ( )
DC

Bridge

Wheatstone Bridge
Kelvins Bridge
Mega-ohm Bridge

Wheatstone bridge
A

Wheatstone bridge is an electrical

circuit used to measure an unknown
electrical resistance by balancing two legs
of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes
the unknown component. Its operation is
similar to the original potentiometer.
It was invented by Samuel Hunter Christie
in 1833 and improved and popularized by
Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843.
The Wheatstone bridge circuit is the most
accurate method of measuring resistance
and is used very widely wherever an
accurate measurement is required.
5

Cont
Consist

of two parallel resistance branches

with each branch containing two series
resistors.
A DC voltage source is connected across
network to provide a source of current
through resistance.
A galvanometer (null detector is connected
between parallel branches to detect a
condition
of balance.
Suitable for resistance value
1 to 10M
6

Cont
At

balance condition, no current flows

through galvanometer
Therefore,
I1 R1 I 2 R2 and I1 I 3 , I 2 I 4
Voltage

drop,

V
V

R1
R2
R2 R4
R1 R3
R1 R2 R1 R4 R1 R2 R2 R3

R1 R4 R2 R3
7

Example 1
Determine the value of unknown
resistance, R4 in a Wheatstone
bridge if R1 = 12k, R2 = 15k
and R3 = 32k.

Sensitivity of a
Wheatstone Bridge
When

the bridge is in an unbalanced

condition, current flows through the
galvanometer causing the deflection of
pointer.
The amount of deflection is a function of
sensitivity of the galvanometer.
Sensitivity is deflection per unit current
Can be expressed in linear or angular
unit of measure.
Sensitivity, S=
mm/A=degree/A=radians/A
Total deflection,
D = S x I (A)
9

Thvenin's Theorem
Thvenin's

theorem for linear electrical

networks states that any combination of
voltage sources, current sources, and
resistors with two terminals is electrically
equivalent to a single voltage source V
and a single series resistor R.
For single frequency AC systems the
theorem can also be applied to general
impedances, not just resistors.
The theorem was first discovered by
German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz
in 1853, but was then rediscovered in
1883 by French telegraph engineer Lon
Charles Thvenin (18571926
10

Unbalanced Wheatstone
Bridge
Use

the Thevenins Theorem

11

Cont
Thevenins

Vth Vab E

equivalent voltage, Vth

R3
R4

R1 R3 R2 R4

12

Cont
Thevenins

equivalent resistance,

Rth
R1//R3 & R2//R4

R1 R3
R2 R4

Rth

R1 R3 R2 R4
13

Cont
If

a galvanometer is connected to terminal

a and b, the deflection current is the
current through the galvanometer.

Current

through the galvanometer

Vth
Ig
Rth Rg

Rg

is the internal resistance in the

galvanometer.
14

Example 2
Calculate the current through the
galvanometer in an unbalanced
Wheatstone bridge. Given supply
voltage is 6V, R1 = 1k, R2 = 1.6
k, R3 = 3.5k, R4 = 7.5k and
Rg = 200,

15

Measurement Errors
Limiting

error of the known

resistors
Insufficient sensitivity of detector
Changes in resistance of the
bridge arms due to the heating
effect (IR) or temperatures
Thermal emf or contact potential
in the bridge circuit
Error due to the lead connection
16

Slightly Unbalanced
Wheatstone Bridge
If

three of the four resistors in a bridge

are equal to R and the fourth differs by
5% or less, we can developed an
approximate but accurate expression
for Thevenins equivalent voltage and
resistance.
E r r
Eth

E
4R
4R

R r
R
r

Vth Vab E

R R r R R
4 R 2r

17

Cont
To

find Rth

R R R R R R
Rth

R
2 2
RR RR

An

approximate Thevenins equivalent circuit

18

Example 3a
Use

the approximation equation to

calculate the current through the
galvanometer in Figure below. The
galvanometer resistance, Rg is 125
and is a center zero 200-0-200-A
movement.

19

Example 3b
In the Wheatstone bridge circuit,
R3 is a decade resistance with a
specified inaccuracy 0.2% and
R1 and R2 = 500 0.1%. If the
value of R3 at the null position is
520.4, determine the possible
minimum and maximum value of
Rx.

20

Kelvins Bridge
A

modified version of the Wheatstone

bridge
To eliminate the effects of contact and
lead resistance when measuring
unknown low resistances (<1)

Rx R3 Rb

R2 R1 Ra

21

Cont
At

point n: Ry is added to the unknown

Rx, resulting in too high and indication
of Rx,
At point m: Ry is added to R3, therefore
the measurement of Rx will be lower
R1 R3 Rmp
than it should be.
Rx Rnp
Rx

R2

R1 R3 R1 Rmp

R1 Rmp
R2

R2

R1 R3 R1 Rmp
Rnp

Rnp
R2 R2

R1 Rnp
Rnp 0;
R2 Rmp
22

Example 4
R2 is 5 and R2 = 0.5 R3. If the ratio of
Ra to Rb is 1000. What is the value of
Rx ?

23

Mega-ohm Bridge
High

resistance measurements are

affected by shunt-leakage resistance.
The guard terminal is connect to a
bridge corner such that the leakage
resistances are placed across bridge
arm with low resistances
R1 // RC RC

since R1 RC

R2 // Rg Rg

since R2 Rg

RA RC
Rx
RB
Unknown resistor,
24

AC Bridge
Capacitance

Measurement
All four arms are
considered as
impedance (Z)
Source is an ac voltage
at desired frequency
At balance
I1Zcondition,
and
1 I2Z2

I1 I 3 , I 2 I 4

Complex

V
V
, I 2

I1
Z2 Z4
Z1 Z 3

form
Z1 Z 4
Polar form

Z 2Z3

Z1Z 4 1 4 Z 2 Z 3 2 3
25

AC Bridge for
Capacitance Measurement

26

Capacitance
Measurement

Capacitance Comparison Bridge

Schering Bridge

27

Capacitance Comparison
Bridge
Z1 R1
Z 2 R2
Z 3 R3 in series with C3 R3

j
C3

Z x Rx in series with C x Rx

j
C x

The condition for balance of the

bridge
Z1 Z x Z 2 Z 3

j
j
R2 R3

R1 Rx
C x
C3

jR1
jR2
R1 Rx
R2 R3
C x
C3
28

Cont
R1 Rx R2 R3
R2 R3
real term
Rx
R1
R1
R2

C x C 3
R1C3
Cx
R2

imaginary term

29

Example 5
A capacitance comparison
bridge is used to measure a
capacitive impedance at a
frequency of 2kHz. The bridge
constants at balance are C3 =
100F, R1 = 10k, R2 = 50k, R3
= 100k . Find the equivalent
series circuit of unknown
impedance.
30

Schering Bridge
Used

for the precision measurement of

capacitors and their insulating
properties.
C3 is low loss (for general
measurement) or having a very stable
1 and very small electric field (for
value
Y1
jC1
R1
insulating
measurement).
Z 2 R2
Z3

j
C 3

Z x Rx

j
C x
31

Cont
The

condition for balance of the bridge

Z1 Z x Z 2 Z 3

Zx

Z 2 Z3
Z 2 Z 3Y1
Z1

j 1
R2

jC1
C3 R1

j
R2 ( j )
RC
Rx

2 1
C x
R1 (C3 )
C3
Rx

j
C x

R2C1
Rx
C3
R1
Cx
C3
R2

real
imaginary
32

Cont
The

RC,

dissipation factor of a series

1 Rx
D
C x R x
Q Xx

Indicate

quality factor of
capacitor

33

Example 6
An AC bridge has constants;C3 =
0.5F, R1 = 1k parallel with C1 =
0.5F, R2 = 2k. Find the
unknown impedance and
dissipation factor.

34

Wien Bridge
Measure

frequency of
the voltage source
using series RC in one
arm and parallel RC in
the adjoining arm.

1
1
AtZbalance
point,
, Z 2 R2 , Y3
jC3 , Z 4 R4
1 R1
jC1

R3

1
jC3
R3

j
R4
Z 2 Z1Z 4Y3 R1
C1

R1 R4 C3 R4
jR4
R2

jC3 R1 R4
R3
C1
C1 R3

35

Cont
The

equivalent parallel of
unknown impedance
R
R3 4
R2

The

1
R1 2
2

R
C
1 1

R2
C1

C3
2 2
2
R4 1 R1 C1

equivalent series of unknown

impedance

R3

2 2
2
1 R3 C3
R4
1
C3
C1
R2
1 2 R32C32
R
R1 2
R4

36

Cont
R2 R1 C3

,
R4 R3 C1

1
C3 R1
C1 R3

In

most, Wien Bridge, R1 = R3 and

C1 = C3
1
2
R2 2 R4 ,

2f

R1C1 R3C3

1
1
f

2 R1 R3C1C3 2R1C1
37

Example 7
Find the equivalent parallel
resistance and capacitance Rx
and Cx in a Wien bridge at
balance when f=2.5 kHz,
R1=3.1k, R2=25k, C1=5.2F,
R4=100k.

38

AC Bridge for
Inductance Measurement

39

Measurement of
Inductance
AC Bridge

Comparison Bridge
Maxwell Bridge
Hay Bridge
Owen Bridge

40

Comparison Bridge
Measure

an unknown inductance
by comparing it with a known
Zinductance.
1 R1
Z 2 R2
Z 3 R3 jL3
Z x R x j L x

At Zbalance,
1Z x Z 2 Z 3

Rx

R2 R3
RL
; Lx 2 3
R1
R1
41

Maxwell Bridge
Measure

an unknown inductance in
terms of a known capacitance.

1
jC1
Z1
1
R1
jC1
R1

Z 2 R2 , Z 3 R3
Z x Rx jLx

At

balance,

Z1 Z x Z 2 Z 3
R2 R3
Rx
; Lx R2 R3C1
R1
42

Example
A Maxwell bridge is used to
measure an inductive impedance.
The bridge constants at balance
are C1 = 0.01F, R1 = 470k, R2
= 5.1k, R3 = 100k . Find the
equivalent series circuit of
unknown resistance
and
R2 R3 (5.1k )(100
k)
Rx

1.09k
inductance.
R1
470k
Solution
Lx R2 R3C1 5.1k 100k 0.01 5.1H

43

Hay Bridge
Measure

an unknown inductance in terms

of a known capacitance.

R1

series with C1

1
Z1 R1
jC1

Z 2 R2 , Z 3 R3
Z x R x j Lx
44

Cont
At balance
Z1 Z x Z 2 Z 3
Lx
R1 Rx
R2 R3 (1)
C1
Rx
Lx R1 (2)
C1
Solve

the equations (1) and (2)

simultaneously
2C1 R1 R2 R3
R2 R3C1
Rx
; Lx
2
2
2
2
2
1 C1 R1
1 2C1 R1
2

45

Cont
Hays

bridge measure the

inductance in the range 1H
-100H with 2% error.

Best

for measurement of
inductance with high Q (>10)

Requires

very low value of R1 to

measure high Q inductance.
46

Owen Bridge
Used

for measuring an unknown

inductance by balancing the loads of its
four arms, one of which contains the
unknown
inductance.
1
Z1
C 2
j
Z 2 R3 , Z 3 R1
C1
Z x R4 jL1

At

balance,

Z1 Z x Z 2 Z 3
C2 R3
R4
; L1 R1 R3C2
C1

47

Wien Bridge
Measure

frequency of the
voltage source using series RC
in one arm and parallel RC in
the adjoining
arm.
1
1
Z1 R1
, Z 2 R2 , Y3
jC3 , Z 4 R4
jC1
R3
At

balance point,
1

R4
Z 2 Z1Z 4Y3 R1
jC3
C1

R3

R1 R4 C3 R4
jR4
R2

jC3 R1 R4
R3
C1
C1 R3

48

The

equivalent parallel of
unknown impedance
R
R3 4
R2

1
R1 2
2

R
C
1 1

R2
C1

C3
2 2
2
R4 1 R1 C1

The

equivalent series of unknown

impedance R

R
R1

R4 1 R C
R4
1
C3
C1
R2
1 2 R32C32
2

2
3

2
3

49

R2 R1 C3

,
R4 R3 C1

1
C3 R1
C1 R3

In

most, Wien Bridge, R1 = R3 and

C1 = C3
R2 2 R4 ,

2f

R1C1 R3C3

1
1
f

2 R1 R3C1C3 2R1C1
50

Example
Find the equivalent parallel
resistance and capacitance Rx
and Cx in a Wien bridge at
balance when f=2.5 kHz,
R1=3.1k, R2=25k, C1=5.2F,
R4=100k. R4

1
R3

Solution

R1

R2

R2
C3
R4

12.4k

R1C

C1
20.3 pF
2 2
2
1 R1 C1
2

2
1

51

10Q &
Chapter 4

52