INTRODUCTION TO THE 2ND LAW

A process must satisfy 1st law of thermodynamics.

Hovever, sayisfiying the 1st law does not ensure that the process will
actually take place.

Processes occur in a certain direction,

and not in the reverse direction.
The 1st law places no restriction on the direction of the process.
(Examples of reverse processes given above are possible !)
Introduce 2nd law
(Examples of reverse processes given above are impossible !)
A process will not occur unless it satisfies both the 1 st and the 2nd laws.

Water always flows downhill

Gases always expand from high

pressure to low pressure

Heat always flows from high

temperature to low temperature

THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS

Thermal Energy Capacity = mxC (kJ/K)
Thermal Energy Reservoir is a body with a relatively large thermal
energy capacity that can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without
undergoing any change in temperature.
Examples : Large water bodies such as oceans,
seas, lakes, rivers; atmospheric air, two-phase
systems, industrial furnaces...
Note : A body does nat actually have to be very large to be considered
a reservoir. If the thermal energy capacity is larger than the amount of
heat transferred, it can be accepted as a reservoir.
Example : a TV in a room.
Thermal Energy Source and Sink : A reservoir that supplies heat is
called source, and a reservoir that absorbs heat is called sink.

HEAT ENGINES

Work can easily be converted to other forms of energy.

But, converting other forms of energy to work is not
easy.

Work can be converted to heat directly and

completely.
We need a device to convert heat into work : Heat
Engine.

Common Charecteristics of Heat Engines :

1. They receive heat from a high-temperature source
(furnace, nuclear reactor, solar energy, ...).
2. They convert part of this heat to work.
3. They reject the remaining waste heat to a lowtemperature sink (the atmosphere, sea, river, ...).
4. They operate on a cycle.

Example To Heat Engines : Steam power plants

Energy Balance :
Wnet,out = Wout-Win
Thermal Efficiency :

Wnet,out = Qin-Qout

Performance = Desired output/Required input

Thermal Efficiency = Net work output/Total heat input

th=Wnet,out / Qin
Heat Engines = Work Producing Devices

Car engines, gas turbines (no thermodynamic cycle,

only mechanical cycle)

Qin= QH (always positive)

Qout= QL (always positive)
Wnet,out = Qin - Qout Wnet,out = QH - QL
th = Wnet,out / Qin th = Wnet,out / QH
th = (QH-QL) / QH
th = 1-(QL / QH)
th 25% for spark-ignition automobile engines
th 35% for diesel engines
th 35% for large gas-turbines
th 50% for combined gas-steam power plants

NOTE : Qout=QL can NOT be zero. th<100

Example 5.1 : Heat is transferred to a heat engine

from a furnace at a rate of 80 MW. If the rate of waste
heat rejection to a nearby river is 50 MW, determine
the net power output and the thermal efficiency for this
heat engine.
Data
QH=80 MW
QL=50 MW
Wnet,out = QH-QL= 80-50 = 30 MW
th=Wnet,out/QH= 30/80 = 0.375 =37.5 %

The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics : Kelvin-Planck Statement

It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive
heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.

=
No heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100%.

=
For a power plant to operate, the working fluid must exchange
heat with the environment as well as the furnace.

impossible
heat
engine

REFRIGERATORS & HEAT PUMPS

Heat flows from high-temperature mediums to low-temperature mediums.

This heat transfer process occurs in nature without requiring any devices.
We need a device to transfer heat from a low-temperature medium to a
high-temperature medium.
This device is called refrigerator.

Refrigerators are cyclic devices

The working fluid used in the refrigeration cycle is called refrigerant.
The most frequently used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle.

Refrigerator

Heat pump

Similar to refrigerators, a heat

pump transfers heat from a lowtemperature medium to a hightemperature medium.
Refrigerators and heat pumps
operate on the same cycle.
But they differ in their goals.

The objective is to
The objective is to
maintain the
maintain the heated
refrigerated space at
space at high temp.
low temp. by removing by supplying heat to
heat from it.
it.
Performance = Desired output/Required input

COPR = QL/Wnet,in
Wnet,in= QH QL

COPHP = QH/Wnet,in
Wnet,in= QH QL

COPR = QL/(QH-QL)

COPHP = QH/(QH-QL)

COPR = 1/(QH/QL-1)
COPHP = 1/(1-QL/QH)
COPR & COPHP can be greater than 1.

For fixed values of QH & QL :

COPHP=COPR+1
For resistance heaters :
COP=1
Air-source heat pumps :
use the cold outside air as the
heat source (COPHP 3).
are not suitable for cold
climates.
Air conditioners :
are basically refrigerators.
Refrigerated space is a room.

Example 5.4 : The food compartment of a refrigerator

is maintained at 4 oC by removing heat from it at a rate of
360 kJ/min. If the required power input to the refrigerator
is 2 kW, determine a) COP of refrigerator b) the rate of
heat rejection to the room that houses the refrigerator.

a) Q L=360 kJ/min =360/60 = 6 kJ/s=kW

COPR = QL/Wnet,in = 6/2 = 3

b) QH= QL +Wnet,in= 6+2 = 8 kW

Example 5.5 : A HP is used to heat a house and maintain it

at 20 oC. On a day when the outdoor air temperature drops
to 2 oC, the house is looses heat at a rate of 80000 kJ/h. If
the HP under these conditions has a COP of 2.5, determine a)
the power consumed by the HP b) the rate at which heat is
absorbed from the cold outdoor air.

a) Q H=80000 kJ/h =80000/3600 = 22.22 kJ/s=kW

Wnet,in= QH/COPHP = 22.22/2.5 = 8.88 kW

b) Q L= Q H -Wnet,in= 22.22-8.88 = 13.34 kW

The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics : Kelvin-Planck Statement

No heat engine can have a thermal
efficiency of 100%.

QL 0

The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics : Clasius Statement

It is impossible to construct a device that
operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a lowertemperature body to a higher-temperature
body.

Wnet,in 0

PERPETUAL-MOTION ENGINES
A process cannot take place unless it satisfies both the 1st and 2nd
laws.
Any device that violates either law is called a perpetual-motion
machine.
A device that violates the 1st
law (by creating energy) is
called a perpetual-motion
machine of the first kind
(PMM1).

A device that violates the 2nd

law is called a perpetualmotionmachine of the second
kind (PMM2).

REVERSIBLE & IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES

Reversible process is process that can be reversed
without leaving any trace on the surroundings.
At the end of the reverse process both the system and the
surroundings are returned to the their initial states.
A process that is not reversible is an irreversible
process.
All the processes occurring in nature are irreversible.
Reversible processes do not occur in nature. They are
idealizations of actual processes.
Why are we bothering with such reversible processes ?
1. They are easy to analyze.
2. We can compare actual processes with ideal reversible processes.
Reversible work producing devices produce the most work,
Reversible work consuming devices consume the least work.

IRREVERSIBILITIES
The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called
irreversibilities :
Friction
Fast compression (non-quasi equilibrium process)
Fast expansion (non-quasi equilibrium process)
Unrestrained expansion
Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
Mixing of two gases
Electric resistance
Chemical reactions

irrev.
30 oC

Q
10 oC

rev.
30 oC

Q
29.999999 oC

A process is internally reversible if no irreversibilities occur

within the system boundaries.
A process is externally reversible if no irreversibilities occur
outside the system boundaries.
If a process is both internally and externally reversible, the
process is called totaly reversible or just reversible.

INTERNALLY & EXTERNALLY REVERSIBLE PROCESSES

Internally Reversible Process

Externally Reversible Process

No
irreversibilities

No
irreversibilities

(heat transfer)

(friction)
(non-quasisystem
equilibrium
boundary
expan. & comp.)

system
boundary

Totally Reversible Process

(internally + externally)
No
irreversibilities
system
boundary

50 oC

No
irrever.
Externally
rev.

50 oC

50 oC

60 oC

50.0001 oC

Externally
irrev.

Externally
rev.

THE CARNOT CYCLE

Carnot cycle is a totaly reversible (both internally and externally) cycle.

It is composed of 4 reversible processes (2 isothermal+2 adiabatic).
Rev.
isothermal
expan.

Carnot Cycle
(Carnot Heat Engine)

Rev.
adiabatic
expan.

Rev.
isothermal
comp.

Rev.
adibatic
comp.

Reversed Carnot Cycle

(Carnot Refrigerator)

The Carnot Principles

1) th of an irreversible HE is
always less than the th of a
rev. HE operating between the
same two reservoirs.
th,irrev< th,rev
2) ths of all reversible HEs
operating between the same
two reservoirs are the same.
th,rev,1= th,rev,2 = th,Carnot

TH

HE1
Irrev

HE2
Rev

TL

HE3
Rev

THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE

The hypothetical HE that operates on the reversible Carnot cyle is called the
Carnot HE.

th= 1-(QL/QH) For all HEs.

For Carnot HE
th,Carnot= 1-(TL/TH) (any reversible HE) QL/QH=TL/TH

The Carnot (reversible) HE is the best HE.

All actual (irreversible) HEs operating between TH
and TL will have lower efficiencies than the Carnot
HE.
< th,rev irreversible HE
th = th,rev reversible HE
> th,rev impossible HE
th<40 for most work-producing devices (HEs) in operation today.
!!! Do not compare the th of HEs with 100% !!! (Because th,rev 100

even for Carnot HE)

!!! Compare them with the th of the Carnot HE operating between
the same TH and TL !!!
An actual steam
power plant

TH=750 K
TL=300 K

th,Carnot = 60%
th,actual = 40%

 th,Carnot= 1-(TL/TH)

TH th,Carnot

TH th,actual

TL th,Carnot

TL th,actual

Q1 : Can we increase TH as much as we like ?

A1 : No, TH is limited by material strength)
Q2 : Can we reduce TL as much as we like ?
A2 : No, TL is limited by the temperature of heat sink such as
atmosphere, river, lake, etc.

Example 5.6 : A Carnot HE, receives 500 kJ of heat per cycle

from a high-temperature source at 652 oC and rejects heat to a
low-temperature sink at 30 oC. Determine a) thof this Carnot
engine and b) the amount of heat rejected to the sink per cycle.
a)
th,Carnot = 1-(TL/TH)
= 1-(30+273)/(652+273)
= 0.672
b)
QL/QH=TL/TH
QL=(TL/TH)QH
=[(30+273)/(652+273)]500
=163.8 kJ

THE QUALITY OF ENERGY

The quality of energy is determined by the work potential of the energy.
Q1
100 kJ
at 925 K

Q2
100 kJ
at 350 K

Which energy is more valuable ?

(or are they equal ?)
Ali

has 20 friends
Friends are
with Ali during
fun times.
They are busy
when Ali needs
their help.

Veli

has 5 friends

They are with

Veli, when Veli
needs their help.

Which one has more friends ?

TH th,Carnot
TH th,Carnot

More of the
high-temperature
energy can be
converted to work.

The higher the

tempreture, the higher
the quality of energy.
For a power plant engineer, a
finite amount of heat energy
at high temperature is more
attractive than a vast amount
of energy at low
temperatures.

THE CARNOT REFRIGERATORS & HEAT PUMPS

COP
COPRR==11/(Q
/(QHH/Q
/QLL-1)
-1)
COP
=1/[(TH/TL)-1]
COPR,Car
R,Car=1/[(TH/TL)-1]

COP
= 1/(1-QL/QH)
COPHP
HP = 1/(1-QL/QH)
COP
=1/[1-(TL/TH)]
COPHP,Car
HP,Car=1/[1-(TL/TH)]

For all refrigerators & HPs

For Carnot refrigerator&HP
(any reversible ref. & HP)

The Carnot (reversible) refrigerator & HP are the best refrigerator and HP.
All actual (irreversible) refrigerators & HPs operating between TH and TL
will have lower COPs than the Carnot refrigerator & HP.

COPR

< COPR,rev irreversible ref.

= COPR,rev reversible ref.
> COPR,rev impossible ref.

THE CARNOT REFRIGERATORS & HEAT PUMPS

TH COPR,Carnot

TH COPR,Carnot

TL COPR,Carnot

TL COPR,Carnot

TH COPHP,Carnot

TH COPHP,Carnot

TL COPHP,Carnot

TL COPHP,Carnot

COPR,Carnot= 1/(TH/TL-1)

COPHP,Carnot= 1/(1-TL/TH)

Example 5.7 : An inventor claims to have developed a refrigerator

that maintains the refrigerated space at 2 oC while operating in a room
where the temperature is 24 oC and that has a COP of 13.5. Is this claim
reasonable ?

COPR,max = COPR,Carnot = 1/[(TH/TL)-1]

= 1/[(297/275)-1]
= 12.5
(COPR, = 13.5) > (COPR,Carnot =12.5) impossible ref.

Example 5.8 : A heat pumpis to be used to heat

a house during the winter. The house is to be
maintained at 21 oC at all times. The house
estimated to be losing heat at a rate of 135000
kJ/h when the outside temperature drops to 5 oC.
Determine the minimum power required to drive
this heat pump.

COPHP,min = COPHP,Car = 1/[1-(TL/TH)]

= 1/[1-(268/294)]
= 11.3
.

COPHP=QH/Wnet,in Wnet,in, min= Wnet,in,Car = QH/COPHP,Car

= 37.5/11.3
= 3.32 kW

HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
Vapor-compression
Refrigeration
Refrigeration Absorption
Cycles
Cycles Thermoelectric

most commonly used

Typical household refrigerators consume about 90 W to 600 W of electricity.

They run intermittently. They run about 30% of the time under normal use in
a house at 25 oC.

HOW TO MINIMIZE ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF REFRIGERATORS ?

1. Open the door the fewest times possible for

the shortest duration possible.
2. Cool the hot foods to room temp. first before
putting them into the refrigerator.
3. Clean the condeneser coils behind the
refrigerator.
4. Check the door gasket for air leaks.
5. Avoid unnecesserily low temp. settings.
6. Avoid excessive ice build-up on the interior
surfaces of the evaporator.
7. Use the power-saver switch that controls the
eating coils and prevents condensation on the
outside surfaces in humid environments.
8. Do not block the air flow passages to and from
the condenser coils of the refrigerator.