Intro..

Actuator is a device which is used to actuate a process.

Actuate is to operate the process.
1. Switching devices mechanical switches, eg. relay and

solid state switches, eg diodes, thyristors and transistors

app switch on or off electrical devices
2. Solenoid type devices used to actuate valves of
hydraulic and pneumatic systems. (flow control)
3. Drive systems DC motor, AC motor and stepper motor.

Basic electronics
Semi-conductor
Diode
Transistor

Resistor

Electronics
specification and
abbreviation

Expansion
of
abbreviation

British
mains
wiring
name

Description

Mechanical switches
SPST

Single pole, single

throw

SPDT

Single pole, double

throw

SPCO

One-way

A simple on-off switch:

The two terminals are
either connected together
or disconnected from each
other. An example is a
light switch.

Two-way

A simple changeover
switch: C (COM,
Common) is connected to
L1 or to L2.

Single pole, centre

off

switches with a stable off

position in the centre

DPST

Double pole, single

throw

Equivalent to
two SPST switches
controlled by a single
mechanism

DPDT

Double pole, double

throw

Equivalent to
two SPDT switches
controlled by a single
mechanism.

DPCO

Double pole
changeover
or Double pole,
centre off

Equivalent to DPDT.
Some suppliers
use DPCO for switches
with a stable off position
in the centre

Double pole

Symbol

Mechanical switches
Relay - A relay is an electrically operated switch.

Relay
Electrically operated switches in which changing the

current in one circuit switches a current on or off in

another circuit.
NO normally open , NC normally closed
Output from controller is small so it is often used with
transistor.
Relays are inductances
Free wheeling or fly back diode.
Importance
To operate a device which needs larger current.

solenoid
Solenoid is an electromagnet which can be used as an

actuator.
Electrically operated actuators.
Solenoid valves are used in hydraulic and pneumatic
systems.

Relay

Solid state switches

diode
Transistor
Thyristor
Triac
Bipole transistor
MOSFET

Diode

Bipolar Transistors
Transistors are manufactured
in different shapes but they
have three leads (legs).
The BASE - which is the lead
responsible for activating the
transistor.
The COLLECTOR - which is
the positive lead.
The EMITTER - which is the
negative lead.

Transistor as a switch

Bipolar switch

Darlington pair

Transistor needs large base current to switch on.

Output from microprocessor has a small input.
A second transistor is employed to enable a high current

to be switched on. Such a combination of pair of

transistor is called Darlington pair.

MOSFET
Metal oxide field effect transistor
Two types
N channel
P channel

Three terminals
Gate (G)
Drain (D)
Source (S)

Operation
When MOSFET is turned on current flows from source to

drain .
Voltage is applied between gate-source to turn on
MOSFET.
MOSFET can be turned off by removing gate voltage.
Gate has full control over the control of MOSFET.
A level shifter buffer required to raise the voltage level at
which the MOSFET starts to activate.
Interfacing with p is simpler then transistor.

Thyristor

Thyristors have three states:

Reverse blocking mode Voltage is applied in the

direction that would be blocked by a diode

Forward blocking mode Voltage is applied in the
direction that would cause a diode to conduct, but the
thyristor has not yet been triggered into conduction
Forward conducting mode The thyristor has been
triggered into conduction and will remain conducting until
the forward current drops below a threshold value known
as the "holding current"

Triac

Voltage control

Thyristor dc control

Lamp dimmer

Thyristor dimmers switch on at an adjustable time (phase

angle) after the start of each alternating current half-cycle,

thereby altering the voltage waveform applied to lamps
and so changing its RMS effective value.
R1 is a current limiting resistor and R2 is a potentiometer.
By adjusting R2 thyristor can be made to trigger at any
point between 0 deg and 90 deg.

Snubber circuit
In order to prevent sudden

change in source voltage,

the rate voltage changes
with time is dV/dt is
controlled by using a
snubber circuit.

Drive systems
DC motor
AC motor
Stepper motor

DC motor

Working principle
When current passes through the coil, the resulting forces

acting on its sides at right angles to the field cause forces

to act on those sides to give a rotation.
For the rotation to continue, when the coil passes through
the vertical position the current direction through the coil
has to be reversed.

Parts
Stator (permanent or non permanent magnet)
Rotor (electromagnet)
Armature
Commutator
Brush

A brush type dc motor is essentially a coil of wire which

is free to rotate - termed as rotor in the field of permanent

or non-permanent magnet.
The magnet termed a stator since it is stationery.
For the rotation to continue, when coil passes through
vertical position the current direction is reversed which is
got by use of brushes making contact with split ring
commutator.

Since armature is a rotating magnetic field it will have

back emf Vb. The back emf depends on rate of flux

induced in coil. Back emf is proportional to angular
velocity w
Vb = Kw
Equivalent circuit diagram for D.C motor
Ra

La = inductance

Vb

Neglecting the inductance produced due to armature coil,

then effective voltage producing current I through

resistance R is Va-Vb, hence
I = (Va - Vb)/R = (Va Kw)/R
T=KI
= k(Va Kw)/R

Control of brush type DC motor

Speed control can be obtained by controlling the voltage

applied to the armature. Since fixed voltage supply is

often used, a variable voltage is obtained by an electronic
circuit.
When A.C supply is used a Thyristor can be used to
control the average voltage applied to armature.
PWM pulse width modulation
Control of d.c motors by means of control signal from

microprocessors.

Brush type motor with nonpermanent magnet

Series wound
Shunt wound
Compound wound
Separately excited

Series wound
Armature and field

windings are connected in

series.
Highest starting torque
Greatest no load speed
Reversing the polarity of
supply will not effect the
direction of rotation of
rotor.

Shunt wound
Armature and field coils

are in parallel.
Lowest starting torque
Good speed regulation.
Almost constant speed
regardless of load.
For reversing direction of
rotation either armature
coil or field coil supply
has to be reversed.

Compound wound
Two field windings one in

series an another in
parallel with armature
windings.
High starting torque with
good speed regulation.

Separately excited
Separate control of

armature and field coils.

Speed of these motors can
be controlled by separately
varying the armature or
field current.

Brush less dc motor

Its consists of a sequence of stator coils and a permanent

magnet rotor.
Current carrying conductors are fixed and magnet moves.
Rotor is ferrite or permanent magnet.
The current to the stator coils are electronically switched
by transistor in sequence round the coils.
Switching being controlled by position of rotors.
Hall effect sensors are used to input signals related to a
particular position of rotor.

A.C motors
Single phase squirrel cage induction motor
Its consists of a squirrel cage rotor, this being copper or
aluminum bars that fit into slots in end rings to form a
complete circuit.
Its consists of a stator having set of windings.
Alternating current is passed through stator windings an
alternating magnetic field is produced.
As a result EMF are induced in conductors in the magnetic
field.
Initially when rotor is stationery net torque is zero.
Motor is not self starting.

3-phase induction motor

3 windings located 120 deg

apart each winding being

connected to one of the three
lines of the supply.
3 phase reach maximum
currents at different times,
magnetic field rotates round
the stator poles completing
one rotation is one full cycle.
Self starting

Synchronous motors
Similar to that of induction

motor but rotor will be a

permanent magnet.
Magnets rotate with the
same frequency as that of
rotating magnetic field
which rotates 360 deg in
one cycle of supply.
Used when precise speed is
required.
Not self starting.

Speed control of AC motor

Speed control of A.C motor

is done by provision of
variable frequency supply.
Torque is constant when
ratio of applied stator
voltage to frequency ration is
constant.
AC is rectified to DC by
convertor and inverted back
to AC with a selected
frequency.

Stepper motors
Stepper motor is a device that produce rotation though

equal angles called as steps, for each digital pulse supplied

to its input.

Stepper motors
Variable reluctance motor
Rotor is made of soft steel and is

cylindrical with four poles, fewer

poles than on the stator.
When opposite pair of windings
has current switched to them, a
magnetic field is produced with
line of force pass from stator to
nearest poles of rotor.
Rotor will until it is in minimum
reluctance position.
Step angle 7.5 deg to 15 deg.

Permanent magnet stepper

Two phase four poles.
Coils on opposite pairs of poles

are in series.
Current is supplied from dc
source.
Rotor is a permanent magnet.
Rotor rotates in 45 deg steps.
Step angles 1.8, 7.5, 15, 30, 34,
or 90 deg available.

Hybrid stepper motor

Combined features of both

variable reluctance and permanent

magnet motors.
Permanent magnets are encased in
iron caps which are cut to have
teeth.
It motor has n phase and m teeth
on the rotor, the total number of
steps per revolution will be nm
0.9 and 0.8 deg steps available.
High accuracy positioning
applications.

Specifications
Phase
Number of independent
windings on the stator, eg a
three phase motor.
Step angle
Angle through which the rotor
rotates from one switching
change for the stator.
Holding torque
Maximum torque that can
applied to a powered motor
without moving it from its rest
position and causing spindle
rotation.

Pull in torque
This is the maximum torque

against which a motor will

start for a given pulse rate
and reach synchronism
without losing a step.

Pull out torque

Maximum torque against

that can be applied to a

motor, running at a given
stepping rate, without
loosing synchronism.

Pull in rate
Maximum switching rate at
which a loaded motor can start
without loosing a step.
Pull out rate
Switching rate at which a
loaded motor will remain in
synchronism as the switching
rate is reduced.
Slew range
Range of switching rates
between pull-in and pull-out
within the motor runs in
synchronism but cannot start
up or reverse.

Bipolar stepper

Unipolar stepper

H bridge

Stepper motor control

Two phase motors are termed as bipolar motors when they have 4

connecting wires for signals.

Solid state switches can be used to switch dc supply between the pair of
stator windings.

Bipolar stepper

Merits and demerits

Merits
A high accuracy of motion is possible, even under open-loop control.
Large savings in sensor (measurement system) and controller costs

are possible when the open-loop mode is used.

Because of the incremental nature of command and motion, stepper
motors are easily adaptable to digital control applications.
No serious stability problems exist, even under open-loop control.
Torque capacity and power requirements can be optimized and the
response can be controlled by electronic switching.
Brushless construction has obvious advantages.

Demerits
They have low torque capacity (typically less than 2,000

oz-in) compared to DC motors.

They have limited speed (limited by torque capacity and
by pulse-missing problems due to faulty switching
systems and drive circuits).
They have high vibration levels due to stepwise motion.
Large errors and oscillations can result when a pulse is
missed under open-loop control.