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Farmasi Forensik
Objective
Mahasiswa akan mengetahui :
Objektif
Mahasiswa mampu untuk :
Serology
Serologi adalah pemeriksaan dan analisis cairan tubuh.
Seorang serologist forensik menganalisa berbagai
cairan tubuh termasuk salivam semen, urin dan darah
Karakteristik Darah
Historical Perspective
of Blood Typing
Blood Terminology
ABO blood groupsbased on having an A, B, both or no
antigens on red blood cells
Rh factormay be present on red blood cells; positive if
present and negative if not
Antigen chemical characteristics (proteins) on the surface
of red blood cells. These account for blood type.
Antibodya substance that reacts with an antigen. Found in
the serum.
Agglutinationclumping of red blood cells; will result if blood
types with different antigens are mixed
Luminol Test
Microscopic observation
Precipitin testblood is injected into a rabbit;
antibodies are formed; the rabbits blood is
extracted as an antiserum; the antiserum is
placed on sample blood. The sample will react
with human proteins if human blood is present.
This test is very sensitive and requires only a
small amount of blood.
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Precipitin Test
Animal Blood
Frog Blood
Human Blood
Red blood cells are most
numerous; 5 to 6 million
per mm3
White blood cells are
larger and less numerous;
5 to 10,000 per mm3
Platelets are tiny, cellular
fragments; 350 to 500,00
per mm3
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Blood Typing
Blood type A has antigen A on the surface of
the cell and will agglutinate with antibody A.
Blood type B has antigen B on the surface of
the cell and will agglutinate with antibody B.
Blood type AB has antigens A and B on the
surface of the cells and will agglutinate with
both antibody A and B.
Blood type O has neither antigen A or B and
will not agglutinate.
Antibodies have two reactive sites (bivalent)
Blood Groups
Antibody Can Give
Can Get
Blood From
Type
Antigen
A,AB
O,A
B,AB
O,B
AB
AandB
Neither
AnorB
AB
A,B,O,AB
Neither
AnorB
AandB
A,B,O,AB
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Blood To
Blood Typing
Human serum containing specific antibodies
can be purchased
Separately mix a drop of unknown blood
sample with drop of each anti-serum
Secretors
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Genetics of blood
Genes are composed of alleles. Blood
type has 3 alleles: A,B,O.
The allele is responsible for producing its
corresponding antigen. The O allele
produces no antigen.
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Genetics of Blood
Genotype - the possible allele combinations
from the parents
Phenotype - the blood type the child actually
has
The A and B alleles are dominant over the O
allele as the O allele doesnt produce an
antigen.
The A and B alleles are codominant as both
antigens are produced.
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Punnet Squares
Assume a set of parents with a father
phenotype A and genotype AO; and a
mother of phenotype B and genotype BO.
The child must get one allele from each
parent. What are the possible genotypes
and phenotypes.
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Mother
Father
A
O
B AB BO
O AO OO
Genotypes
Phenotypes - AB, B, A, O
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Clinically, the Rh factor, like ABO factors, can lead to serious medical
complications. The greatest problem with the Rh group is not so much
incompatibilities following transfusions (though they can occur) as those
between a mother and her developing fetus.
Mother-fetus incompatibility occurs when the mother is Rh- (dd) and
the father is Rh+ (DD or Dd). Maternal antibodies can cross the
placenta and destroy fetal red blood cells. The risk increases with each
pregnancy. Europeans are the most likely to have this problem--13% of
their newborn babies are at risk.
Rh type mother-fetus incompatibility occurs only when an Rh+ man
fathers a child with an Rh- mother. Since an Rh+ father can have either a
DD or Dd genotype, there are 2 mating combinations possible:
Rh antibodies are harmless until the mother's second or later pregnancies. If she is ever carrying another Rhpositive child, her Rh antibodies will recognize the Rh proteins on the surface of the baby's blood cells as
foreign, and pass into the baby's bloodstream and attack those cells. This can lead to swelling and rupture of
the baby's RBCs. A baby's blood count can get dangerously low when this condition, known as hemolytic or
Rh disease of the newborn, occurs
If a father's Rh factor
genes are + +, and the
mother's are + +, the
baby will have one +
from the father and
one + gene from the
mother. The baby will
be + + Rh positive.
If a father's Rh factor
genes are + +, and
the mother's are - -,
the baby will have
one + from the father
and one - gene from
the mother. The baby
will be + - Rh
positive.
If the father's
genes are - -, and
the mother's are -, the baby will
be: - - Rh
negative
anemia (in some cases, the anemia is severe with enlargement of the liver and spleen)
jaundice - yellowing of the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes.
severe anemia with enlargement of the liver and spleen
hydrops fetalis - this occurs as the fetal organs are unable to handle the anemia. The heart begins to
fail and large amounts of
fluid build up in the fetal tissues and organs. A fetus with hydrops
fetalis is at great risk of being stillborn.
Population data
The frequency of Rh factor blood types and the RhD neg allele gene differs in various
populations.
Population data for the Rh D factor and the RhD neg allele[
BLOOD PATTERN/SEROLOGICAL
RECONSTRUCTION
SCENE PATTERN
RECONSTRUCTION
LAB RESULTS
RECONSTRUCTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Stain condition
Pattern
Distribution
Location
Directionality
FromCrackingCasesbyDr.HenryC.Lee
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BLOOD DROPLET
Characteristics
A blood droplet will remain spherical in
space until it drops onto a surface
Once a blood droplet impacts a surface,
a bloodstain is formed.
A droplet falling from the same height,
hitting the same surface at the same
angle, will produce a stain with the
same basic shape.
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CONDITIONS AFFECTING
BLOODSTAIN SHAPE
Size of the droplet
Angle of impact
Velocity at which the blood droplet left the
original surface
Texture of the target surface
On clean glass or plastic--droplet will have smooth outside
edges
On a rough surface--will produce scalloping on the edges
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Questions Answered by
Blood Spatter Interpretation
The distance between the target
surface and the origin of blood at the
time of blood shed
The point(s) of origin of the blood
Movement and direction of a person or
an object
The number of blows, shots, etc.
causing the bloodshed and/or the
dispersal of blood.
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Questions Answered by
Blood Spatter Interpretation
Type and direction of impact that
produced the bloodshed
The position of the victim and/or object
during bloodshed
Movement of the victim and/or object
after bloodshed
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Bloodstain Terminology
Angle of impact--angle at which blood strikes a
target surface.
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Bloodstain Terminology
Contact stain--general term referring to bloodstains
Bloodstain Terminology
Directionality--relates to the direction a drop of
blood traveled in space from its point of origin
Bloodstain Pattern
Terminal Velocity
Directionality
Angle of Impact
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IMPACT
The more acute the angle of impact, the
more elongated the stain.
90 degree angles are perfectly round
with 80 degree angles taking on a more
elliptical shape.
At about 30 degrees the stain will begin
to produce a tail.
The more acute the angle, the easier it
is to determine the direction of travel.
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Passive (dripping)
Transfer (smearing)
Projected
Blood Stains
The harder and less porous
the surface, the less the blood
drop will break apart.
The softer and more porous
the surface, the more a blood
drop will break apart.
The pointed end of the blood
stain faces the direction the
stain is traveling.
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Area of Intersection
The location of the blood
source can be
determined by drawing
lines the various blood
droplets to the point
where they intersect.
This is the bloods
origin.
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Area of Convergence
The area of
convergence is the
point of origin; the
spot where the
blow occurred.
It is determined by
drawing a line from the
area of intersection
straight up to where to
where the angle of
impact would intersect
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Uses of Blood
Spatter
There are many uses for blood spatter. It can be used to find the type of weapon
and the velocity the victim was struck with it. It can also tell us the number of
blows given, the handedness of the assailant, and the position and movements
of both the victim and the assailant during and after the attack. As well as the
type of injuries, how long ago the crime took place, and whether the death of
the victim was immediate or delayed.
CRIME SCENE
Whatevidencecan
youseeinthis
crimescene?What
storydoesthescene
tell?
55
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Blood Evidence
Class evidence for blood would include blood
type. If you can determine the DNA you
would have individual evidence.
Blood stain patterns are considered
circumstantial evidence in a court room.
Experts could argue many points including
direction of stains, height of the perpetrator,
position of the victim, left/right hand, whether
the body was moved, etc.
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Forensic Characterization of
Semen
Many crimes involve sexual misconduct
Normal males, upon ejaculation, release seminal fluid. This fluid
is a mixture of components:
water
spermatozoa
enzymes
inorganic salts
Semen at a crime scene (clothing, bed sheets, carpet, cushions)
can be located and identified by three common methods:
microscope examination to find sperm
acid phosphatase test
p30 (also called prostrate specific antigen) immunoassay test
Sperm
Among the smallest and most
highly specialized cells in the
human body.
Has a head and a tail
Contains 23 chromosomes
with the genetic material
found in the head
Males release 2.5 to 6
milliliters of seminal fluid per
ejaculation with approximately
100 million sperm per milliliter.
Magnified400X
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Semen
Determination of Seminal Fluid
Acid phosphatase color test
the presence of acid phosphatase, the
enzyme secreted by the prostate gland into
the seminal fluid, will turn purple when
sodium alpha naphthylphosphate and Fast
Blue B solution are placed on it.
It will also fluoresce under UV light when it
comes in contact with 4-methyl umbelliferyl
phosphate.
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Semen (cont.)
Determination of Seminal Fluid
Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) or p30-unique to seminal plasma
P30 is isolated and injected into a rabbit where
antibodies are produced (anti-p30)
The stain extract is place in one well of an
electrophoresis plate and the anti-p30 in the
opposite well. The electric is applied and the
antigens and antibodies move toward each other.
The formation of a precipitation line between the
wells shows the presence of p30 in the sample
stain. It must be seminal fluid.
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Forensic Characterization of
Saliva
Saliva is a mixture of many components:
99% water
Mucin (protein helps in swallowing)
Amylase (enzyme to help digest carbohydrates)
Cheek cells (good for DNA)
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