Fluid Mechanics

Lecture 6
The boundary-layer equations

The need for the boundary-layer model

While the flow past a streamlined body may be
well described by the inviscid flow (and even the
potential flow) equations over almost all the flow
region, those equations do not satisfy the fact that
because of finite viscosity of real fluids the
flow velocity at the wall itself must vanish.
So, we need a flow model that uses the simplest
possible form of the Navier Stokes equation but
which does enable the no-slip condition to be
satisfied.
Such a model was first developed by Ludwig
Prandtl in 1904.

Objectives of this lecture

To explore the simplification of the Navier
Stokes equations to obtain the boundary
layer equations for steady 2D laminar flow.
To understand the assumptions used in
deriving these equations.
To understand the conditions in which the
boundary-layer equations can be used
reliably.
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The governing equations

Navier-Stokes equations:
Continuity:

U V

0
x y

x-momentum:
y-momentum:
We seek to simplify these equations by neglecting terms
which are less important under particular circumstances.
Key assumptions: the thickness of the region where
viscous effects are significant,, is very thin , i.e. << L
and ReL >>1.

Non-dimensionalized form of N-S Equations

Non-dimensionalize equations using
V, a constant
(approach) velocity,
L ,an overall
dimension i.e.
U*= U/ V;
V*=V/V; x*=x/L;
y*=y/L
P*=???
( A question for you)

U
x

V
y

U
U
U
V

2U
2
U
P
1

Re
2
2
x

2V
2

V
P
1

Re
2
y
y2

L x

L
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Non-dimensionalized N-S equations

Since 0 x L , 0 x* x 1 .
L

x has a magnitude
comparable to L
x* has an order of
magnitude of 1.

Hence we write

L
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Non-dimensionalized N-S equations

Since

0 y

Hence we write

and L ,
y*= O().

0 y*

. 1
L
L

y* is at least an order of
magnitude smaller than 1.

Also we have

L
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Continuity equation
U
x

V
y

O(1) [V ]

0
O(1) O( )

x O (1)

y O( )
U O(1)

[V ]
O(1)
0
O( )

[V*] has to be of order O() to satisfy continuity, i.e..

*

V O ( )
No term can be omitted hence the continuity equation
remains as it is, i.e.
U V

0
x y

x-momentum equation
U

2U

y
x Re L

2U

2U

2
2
y
x

y O( )

V * O( )

2U

O (1) O (1)
1

O(1) O( )
2
2
2
O (1) O ( )
x
y
2
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x-momentum equation
U

y
x Re L

1
O(1) O(1) O(1)
Re L

2U

2U

2
2

y
x

1
O(1) O ( 2 )

To make the above equation valid, we must have:

ReL has to be large and x-gradients in the viscous term can be dropped
in comparison with y-gradients. The dimensional form of the equation
thus becomes:

V
U
P
2U
U
V

x
y
x
y 2

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y-momentum equation
V

1
U
V

Re
x
y
y
L

2V

2V

2
2

y
x

To do an order of magnitude analysis for each

P
term and estimate the order of magnitude for
y

y O( )

V * O ( )
[Re] O (

1
)
2

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y-momentum equation
V

1
U
V

Re
x
y
y
L

2V

2V

2
2

y
x

y O( )

V * O ( )
[Re] O (

1
)
2

O( )
O( )
P
1 O( ) O( )
O[1]
O[ ]

2
1
O[1]
O[ ]
O
(1)
y
O( )
O( 2 )

1
O( ) O( ) O[
] O( ) O( ) O( )

Hence

P
y

O[ ] at most
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y-momentum equation
P
y

O( )

P
0
y

The pressure can be assumed to be constant

across the boundary layer over a flat plate. Hence
the pressure only varies in the x-direction and the
pressure at the wall is equal to that at the edge of the
layer, i.e.
L

L
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Two qualifiers
If the surface has substantial longitudinal
curvature (/R >0.1)
it may not be adequate to
assume constant pressure across boundary layer.
Then one needs to apply radial equilibrium to
compute P (see Slide 16)
In 3D boundary layers (not covered in this course
but very important in the industrial world) one
needs to be able to work out the presssure
variations in the y-z plane (normal to the mean
flow) to compute the secondary velocities .

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Summary of assumptions
Basic assumption:
Derived results
V is small, i.e.
Re must be large:

V O( )
1
[Re] O ( 2 )

and then only velocity gradients normal to the wall are

significant in the viscous term
The pressure is constant across the boundary layer
(for 2D nearly straight) flows, i.e.
P
0
y
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Boundary layer equations

Continuity
x-momentum
2U

U V

0
x y

dP
U
U
2U
U
V

x
y
dx
y 2

Since x 2 disappears, the equations become of

parabolic type which can be solved by knowing
only the inlet and boundary conditions... i.e. no
feedback from downstream back upstream.
Unknowns: U and V; (P may be assumed known)
Boundary conditions:
y = 0; U = V = 0
At wall :
Free stream: y = ; U = V U
Inlet:
U(x0,y), V(x0,y)

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Boundary layer over a curved surface

Pressure gradient
across boundary layer:

P U 2

y
R

U y

Assume a linear velocity distribution, i.e.U

integrating from y=0 to gives

P( ) P (0)

U 2
3R

P ( ) P(0)

U 2

3R

Hence pressure variations

across the boundary layer
are negligible when R

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Limitations
Large Reynolds number, typically Re >1000
Boundary-layer approximations inaccurate
beyond the point of separation.
The flow becomes turbulent when Re > 500,000.
In that case the averaged equations may be
describable by an adapted for of momentum
equation to be treated later.
Applies to boundary layers over surfaces with
large radius of curvature.

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