Basic Concepts

(Structure of
Solids)

Crystal Structure of materials

FCC: Ni, Cu, Ag, Pt, Au, Pb, Al (soft)
BCC: V, Mo, Ta, W (hard material)
HCP: Mg, Zn
Cobalt HCP < 4200C, FCC > 4200C
Chromium HCP < 20oC , BCC >20oC
Glass- Amorphous
BCC-Ferrite or
-ferrite or -iron
&
- iron
FCC- Austenite or
-iron

GATE 2011

The crystal structure of austenite is

(a) body centered cubic
(b) face centered cubic
(c) hexagonal closed packed
(d) body centered tetragonal

IES 2011
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer
using the code given below the lists :

List I

List II

A. Alpha iron

1. FCC

B. Zinc

2. BCC

C. Glass

3. HCP

D. Copper

4. Amorphous

Codes
A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 4 3 2 (b) 2 4 3 1
(c)
1 3 4 2 (d) 2 3 4 1

IES-2003
Match List-I (Crystal Structure) with List-II (Example)
and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the Lists:
List-I List-II
(Crystal Structure) (Example)
A. Simple Cubic 1. Zinc
B. Body-centered Cubic 2. Copper
C. Face-centered Cubic 3. Alpha iron at room temperature
D. Hexagonal Close Packed 4. Manganese
Codes:AB C D A B C D
(a) 4 3 1 2 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 3 4 1 2

IES-1998
Match List-I with List-II and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(Material) (Structure)
A. Charcoal 1. F.C.C
B. Graphite 2. H.C.P
C. Chromium 3. Amorphous
D. Copper
4. B.C.C
Code: A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 3 2 4 1
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 2 3 1 4

IES-2001
Match List-I (Name of the Element) with List-II
(Crystal Structure) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists:
List I List II
A. Fluorspar 1. Body-centered cubic
B. Alpha-Iron2. Hexagonal closed packed
C. Silver 3. Simple cubic
D. Zinc 4. Face-centered cubic
Codes:AB C D A B C D
(a) 3 2 4 1 (b) 4 1 3 2
(c) 4 2 3 1 (d) 3 1 4 2

IES-2006
Match List-I (Element) with List-II (Crystal
Structure) and select the correct answer using
the code given below the Lists:
List - I
List - II
A. Alpha Iron 1.Hexagonal closed packed
B. Copper
2.Body-centred cubic
C. Zinc 3.Amorphous
D. Glass 4.Face-centred cubic
Codes:AB C D A B C D
(a) 2 3 1 4 (b) 1 4 2 3
(c) 2 4 1 3 (d) 1 3 2 4

Plastic deformation
Following the elastic deformation, material
undergoes plastic deformation.
Also characterized by relation between stress
and strain at constant strain rate and
temperature.
Microscopically, it involves breaking atomic
bonds, moving atoms, then restoration of bonds.
Stress-Strain relation here is complex because of
atomic plane movement, dislocation movement,
and the obstacles they encounter.
Crystalline solids deform by processes slip
and twinning in particular directions.
Contd

Amorphous solids deform by viscous flow

mechanism without any directionality.

Because of the complexity involved, theory of
plasticity neglects the following effects:
Anelastic strain, which is time dependent
recoverable strain.
Hysteresis behavior resulting from loading
and unloading of material.
Bauschinger effect dependence of yield
stress on loading path and direction.
Equations relating stress and strain are called
constitutive equations.
Contd

A true stress-strain curve is called flow curve as

it gives the stress required to cause the material

to flow plastically to certain strain.
Because of the complexity involved, there have
been many stress-strain relations proposed.
= fn( , T, microstructure)
= K n

Strain hardening exponent, n = 0.1 - 0.5

= K .m

Strain - rate sensitivity, m = 0.4 - 0.9

= K( 0 + )n
= 0 + K n

Strain from previous work - 0

Yield strength - 0

Slip
Slip is the prominent mechanism of plastic deformation

in metals.
It involves sliding of blocks of crystal over one other
along definite crystallographic planes, called slip planes.
In physical words it is analogous to a deck of cards when
it is pushed from one end.
Slip occurs when shear stress applied exceeds a critical
value.
During slip each atom usually moves same integral
number of atomic distances along the slip plane
producing a step, but the orientation of the crystal
remains the same.
Steps observable under microscope as straight lines are
called slip lines.

The

Twinning

second important mechanism of plastic

deformation is twinning.
It results when a portion of crystal takes up an
orientation that is related to the orientation of the rest
of the untwined lattice in a definite, symmetrical way.
The twinned portion of the crystal is a mirror image of
the parent crystal. The plane of symmetry is called
twinning plane.
Each atom in the twinned region moves by a
homogeneous shear a distance proportional to its
distance from the twin plane.
The lattice strains involved in twinning are small,
usually in order of fraction of inter-atomic distance,
thus resulting in very small gross plastic deformation.
Contd

The

important role of twinning in plastic

deformation is that it causes changes in plane
orientation so that further slip can occur.
Twinning generally occurs when slip is restricted,
because the stress necessary for twinning is
usually higher than that for slip.
Thus, some HCP metals with limited number of
slip systems may preferably twin.
Also, BCC metals twin at low temperatures
because slip is difficult.
Of course, twinning and slip may occur
sequentially or even concurrently in some cases.

IES 2007
What is the movement of block of atoms
along certain crystallographic planes and
directions, termed as?
(a) Glide
(b) Twinning
(c) Slip
(d) Jog

IES-2005
The B.C.C. and H.C.P. metals undergo
plastic deformation by:
(a) Slip
(b) Twinning
(c) Edge dislocation
(d) Twinning in combination with slip

IES-1998
Assertion (A): Plastic deformation in metals and
alloys is a permanent deformation under load. This
property is useful in obtaining products by cold
rolling.
Reason (R): Plastic or permanent deformation in
metal or alloy is caused by movement or dislocations.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

Atomic Structure
Atoms consist of a relatively dense nucleus composed of

positively charged protons and neutral particles of nearly

identical mass, known as neutrons.
Surrounding the nucleus are the negatively charged
electrons, which have only 1/1839 times the mass of a
neutron and appear in numbers equal to the protons, to
maintain a net charge balance.
The light electrons that surround the nucleus play a far
more significant role in determining material properties.
Again, experiments reveal that the electrons are arranged
in a characteristic structure consisting of shells and
subshells, each possessing a distinctive energy. Upon
absorbing a small amount of energy, an electron can
jump to a higher-energy shell farther from the nucleus.
Contd

The reverse jump can also occur with the

concurrent release of a distinct amount, or

quantum, of energy.
The number of electrons surrounding the
nucleus of a neutral atom is called the atomic
number.
More important, however, are those electrons in
the outermost shell or subshell, known as
valence electrons.
These are influential in determining chemical
properties,
electrical
conductivity,
some
mechanical properties, the nature of interatomic
bonding, atom size, and optical characteristics.

Atomic Bonds
General characteristics of materials joined by ionic bonds

include moderate to high strength, high hardness, brittleness,

high melting point, and low electrical conductivity.
A second type of primary bond is the covalent type.
Like the ionic bond, the covalent bond tends to produce
materials with high strength and high melting point.
Atom movement within the framework material (plastic
deformation) requires the breaking of discrete bonds, thereby
making the material characteristically brittle.
Electrical conductivity depends on bond strength, ranging from
conductive
tin
(weak
covalent
bonding),
through
semiconducting silicon and germanium, to insulating diamond
(carbon).
Engineering materials possessing ionic or covalent bonds tend
to be ceramic (refractories or abrasives) or polymeric in nature.
Contd

A third type of primary bond can form when a

complete outer shell cannot be formed by either

electron transfer or electron sharing. This bond is
known as the metallic bond.
If there are only a few valence electrons (one, two, or
three) in each of the atoms in an aggregate, these
electrons can easily be removed while the remainder
are held firmly to the nucleus.
These highly-mobile,"free" electrons account for the
high electrical and thermal conductivity values as well
as the opaque property (free electrons can absorb the
discrete energies of light radiation) observed in
metals.
Moreover, they provide the "cement" required for the
positive-negative-positive attractions that result
in
Contd

More significant, however, is the observation

that the positive ions can move within the

structure without the breaking of discrete
bonds. Materials bonded by metallic bonds
can therefore be deformed by atommovement mechanisms and produce a
deformed material that is every bit as strong
as the original.
This phenomenon is the basis of metal
plasticity, ductility, and many of the shaping
processes used in the fabrication of metal
products.

IES-2008
Assertion (A): Elements are classified into metals
and non-metals on the basis of their atomic
weights.
Reason (R): The valence electron structures
contribute to the primary bonding between the
atoms to form aggregates.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct
explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

IES-2003
Assertion (A): Unlike in the case of ionic bonds,
the co-ordination numbers for covalently bonded
atoms are not controlled by the radii ratio.
Reason (R): A covalent bond has a specific
direction of bonding in space.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

IES 2011

Solid material chemical bonds are :

(a) Ionic, molecular and fusion
(b) Covalent, fusion and fission
(c) Ionic, covalent and molecular
(d) Fission, molecular and ionic

Development of a grain structure

When a metal solidifies, a small particle of solid forms

from the liquid with a lattice structure characteristic of

the given material.
This particle then acts like a seed or nucleus and grows
as other atoms in the vicinity attach themselves. The
basic crystalline unit is repeated throughout space.
In actual solidification, many nuclei form independently
at various locations throughout the liquid and have
random orientations with respect to one another. Each
then grows until it begins to interfere with its
neighbours.
Since adjacent lattice structures have different
alignments or orientations, growth cannot produce a
single continuous structure.

Contd

The small, continuous volumes of solid are

known as cristals or grains, and the surfaces

that divide them (i.e., the surfaces of
crystalline discontinuity) are known as grain
boundaries.
The process by which a grain structure is
produced Upon solidification is one of
nucleation and growth.
Grains are the smallest of the structural units
in a metal that are observable with ordinary
light microscopy.
The atoms in the grain boundaries are more
loosely bonded and tend to react withContd
the

The number and size of the grains in a metal vary with the

rate of nucleation and the rate of growth.

The greater the nucleation rate, the smaller the resulting
grains. Conversely, the greater the rate of growth, the larger
the grain.
Because the resulting grain structure will influence certain
mechanical and physical properties, it is an important
property for an engineer to both control and specify. One
means of specification is through the ASTM (American
Society for Testing and Materials) grain size number, defined
as:
where N is the number of grains per square inch visible in a
prepared specimen at lOOX and n is the ASTM grain-size
number. Low ASTM numbers mean a few massive grains;high
numbers refer to materials with many small grains.

IES-2002
Chemicals attack atoms within grain
boundaries preferentially because they
have
(a) Lower energy than those in the grains
(b) Higher energy than those in the grains
(c) Higher number of atoms than in the
grains
(d) Lower number of atoms than in the
grains

Fracture of metals
If the plastic deformation of a metal is extended too far, the

metal may ultimately fracture.

These types of fractures are known as ductile fractures,
noting that the initial response to the applied load was one of
plastic deformation.
Another possibility, however, is where fracture precedes
plastic deformation, occuring in a sudden, catastrophic
manner, and propagating rapidly through the material. These
fractures, known as, brittle fractures, are most common with
metals having the bcc or hcp crystal structures.
Whether the fracture is ductile or brittle, however, often
depends
on
the
specific
conditions
of
material,
temperature,state of stress, and rate of loading.
Fracture strength depends only on the basic crystal
structure .

GATE-2010
The material property which depends
only on the basic crystal structure is
(a) Fatigue strength
(b) Work hardening
(c)

Fracture strength

(d)

Elastic constant

IES-1992
Which of the following statement is true
about brittle fracture?
(a) High temperature and low strain rates
favour brittle fracture
(b) Many metal with HCP crystal structure
commonly show brittle fracture
(c) Brittle fracture is always preceded by
noise
(d) Cup and cone formation is characteristic
for brittle materials

Cold working, recrystallization

and hot working
During deformation, a portion of the deformation

energy becomes stored within the material in the

form of additional dislocations and increased grain
boundary surface area. If a deformed polycrystalline
metal is subsequently heated to a high-enough
temperature, the material will seek to lower its
energy. New, equiaxed (spherical-shaped) crystals will
nucleate and grow out of the original structure . This
process of reducing the internal energy through the
formation of new crystals is known as
recrysrallization.
The temperature at which recrystallization takes place

Contd

The greater the amount of prior deformation,

the more stored energy, and the lower the

recrystallization temperature. However, there is
a lower limit below which recrystallization will
not take place in a reasonable amount of time.
This temperature can often be estimated by
taking 0.4 times the melting point of the metal
when the melting point is expressed in an
absolute temperature scale.
This is also the temperature at which atomic
diffusion (atom movement within the solid)
becomes significant, indicating that diffusion is
an important mechanism in recrystallization.

Contd

When metals are plastically deformed below their

recrystallization temperature, the process is called

cold working.
The metal strain hardens and the structure
consists of distorted grains. If the deformation is
continued, the metal may fracture. Therefore, we
find it common practice to recrystallize material
after certain amounts of cold work.
Ductility is restored, and the material is ready for
further deformation.
The heating process is known as a recrystallization
anneal and enables deformation to be carried out
to great lengths without the danger of fracture.
Contd

If metals are deformed at temperatures

sufficiently above the recrystallization, the

process is known as hot working.
Deformation and recrystallization can take
place simultaneously,and large deformations
are possible.
Since a recrystallized grain structure is
constantly forming, the final product will not
exhibit strain hardening.

Contd

Fig.
Recrystallization
of 70-30 brass:
(a) cold-worked
33%; (b)heated at
580C (1075F)
for 3 seconds, (c)
4 seconds, and
(d) 8 seconds

Plastic deformation in
polycrystalline metals
Gross

plastic deformation of a polycrystalline

specimen corresponds to the comparable distortion of
the individual grains by means of slip. Although some
grains may be oriented favourably for slip, yielding
cannot occur unless the unfavourably oriented
neighbouring grains can also slip.
Thus in a polycrystalline aggregate, individual grains
provide a mutual geometrical constraint on one other,
and this precludes plastic deformation at low applied
stresses.
That is to initiate plastic deformation, polycrystalline
metals require higher stresses than for equivalent
Contd
single crystals, where stress depends on orientation
of

Slip

in polycrystalline material involves

generation, movement and (re-)arrangement
of dislocations.
The second important mechanism of plastic
deformation is twinning. It results when a
portion of crystal takes up an orientation that
is related to the orientation of the rest of the
untwined lattice in a definite, symmetrical
way.
The twinned portion of the crystal is a mirror
image of the parent crystal. The plane of
symmetry is called twinning plane.