Triangulation

Triangulation may be defined as the use of two or

more methods of data collection in the study of
some aspect of human behavior .

Types of triangulation and their

characteristics
Time triangulation: this type attempts to take into
consideration the factors of change and process by
utilizing cross-sectional and longitudinal design.
Space triangulation: this type attempts to
overcome the parochialism of studies conducted in
the same country.
Combined levels of triangulation: this type uses
more than one level of analysis from the individual
level, the interactive level and the level of
collectives.

Types of triangulation and their

characteristics
Theoretical triangulation: this type draws upon
alternative or competing theories in preference to
utilizing one viewpoint only.
Investigator triangulation: this type engages more
than
one
observer,
data
are
discovered
independently by more than one observer.
Methodological triangulation: this type uses either
the same method on different occasions, or
different methods on the same object of study.

Smith (1975) identifies six levels that characterize

the collective as a whole:
Group analysis
Organizational units of analysis
Institutional analysis
Ecological analysis
Cultural analysis
Society analysis

Ensuring Validity
HOW TO MINIMIZE THREATS TO VALIDITY AT THE DESIGN
STAGE
choosing an appropriate time scale
ensuring that there are adequate resources for the
required research to be undertaken
selecting an appropriate methodology for answering the
research questions
selecting appropriate instrumentation for gathering the
type of data required
using an appropriate sample
avoiding a biased choice of researcher or research team

How to Minimize the Invalidity or Bias

at the Stage of Data Gathering
reducing the Hawthorne effect
taking steps to avoid non-return of questionnaires
avoiding having too long or too short an interval between
pretests and post-tests
ensuring inter-rater reliability
matching control and experimental groups fairly
ensuring standardized procedures for gathering data or for
administering tests
tailoring the instruments to the concentration span of the
respondents and addressing other situational factors
addressing factors concerning the researcher (particularly
in an interview situation)

How to Minimize the Invalidity at

the Stage of Data Analysis
using respondent validation
avoiding subjective interpretation of data
reducing the halo effect
using appropriate statistical treatments for the level of
data
avoiding poor coding of qualitative data
avoiding making inferences and generalizations beyond
the capability of the data to support such statements
avoiding the equating of correlations and causes
avoiding selective use of data

How to Minimize the Invalidity at

the Stage of Data Reporting
avoiding using data selectively and unrepresentatively
indicating the context and parameters of the research in
the data collection and treatment, the degree of
confidence which can be placed in the results, the degree
of context-freedom or context-boundedness of the data
presenting the data without misrepresenting its message
making claims which are sustainable by the data
avoiding inaccurate or wrong reporting of data
ensuring that the research questions are answered

Reliability in Quantitative
Research
Reliability in quantitative research is essentially a
synonym for dependability, consistency and
replicability over time, over instruments and over
groups of respondents.
It is concerned with precision and accuracy.

 Reliability as Stability
Reliability is a measure of consistency over time and
over similar samples.
Reliability as Equivalence
Through using equivalent forms of a test or datagathering instrument.
Through inter-rater reliability.
Reliability as internal consistency
It demands that the instrument or tests be run once only
through the split-half method.