Theories of

Educational
Management
PARTICIPATORY MODELS OF
ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT

Participative
Management
Participative management is a practice that managers use as
an attempt to satisfy employees and increase productivity
(Yohe 2003). By participatory means various types and
degrees of involvement of employees in, control over, and
decision making in an activity (Vernooy, Qiu, and Jianchu
2008) Participative management, rooted in the management
approach, focuses on decentralization of educational decision
making and sharing of power (Sidener, 1995)

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Participative
Management
Generally, participatory management theory assumes that employee prefer to affect their
work by playing a role in making decisions about their work. So, by the means of
participatory management, it is tried to balance the involvement of both superiors and
subordinates in information-sharing, problemsaving and decision making (Jongjoo, D,
and Houston 2009). Most authors agree that conferring greater decision-making authority
and responsibility to front-line employees is the essence of participatory management,
so they, too, have some involvement (albeit often at a nonstrategic level) in the control
and coordination of the basic activities and functions of the enterprise (Cotton, 1994).
Participatory management typically requires greater sharing of information, rewards, and
power with front-line employees, as well as considerably greater investment in training
(Kaufman, 2001)

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Participative
Management
It is indicated that participative management is one of the most
important as well as most widely utilized strategies for
developing organizations (Anon 1997) which emphasize on the
employee development (Anonymous, 2007). Glosser (2001)
believes that participatory groups is more than putting
individuals in groups, it needs not only physical presence, but
also mental involvement of them. The theme of participative
management involves employees ability, skill and interest in
business decision making. Participatory management is
characterized as a style under which managers have complete
trust in subordinates, and much of the decision making is
accomplished by group participation.(Shagholi and Hussin
2009)

Definitions of Participatory
management
Participative management is a kind of management style in which the
subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their
superiors (Robbins, 1991: 243).

"Participative management is a term used to describe an approach to

management in which the subordinates, in a particular situation, are allowed
and encouraged to participate in decisions which will affect them" (Crane,
1979).

Knoop (1995) defines participative management as joint decision making or

a least shared influence in decision making by a superior and his or her
employees (Benoliel and Somech 2010)

The Participatory
Manager
Ten characteristics declared for participatory manager which ranked in order from
the most to the least participative are as follows:
Gives subordinate a share in decision-making
Keeps subordinates informed of the true situation, good or bad, under all
circumstances
Stays aware of the state of the organization's morale and does everything possible
to make it high
Be approachable
Counsels, trains, and develops subordinates
Communicates effectively with subordinates
Shows thoughtfulness and consideration of others
tends to make changes in ways of doing things
tends to support subordinates even when they make mistakes
Expresses appreciation when a subordinate does a good job

Structure
Participatory management can have formal or informal
structure. Some evidence suggests that formal structures
lead to higher degrees of participation than informal
structures (Somech 2002).
Considering the five dimensions mentioned above,
participative management can be classified into six types:
1) participation in work decisions; 2) consultative
participation; 3) short-term participation; 4) informal
participation; 5) employee ownership; and 6)
representative participation.

Participation
According to the levels of control by employees over their works and organizations, three
paradigms of participative management are defined, industrial democracy, employee
participation and employee involvement (Anon 1997). There is a continuum indicates the
degree of involvement in decisions making. Decisions are made unilaterally by the manager
with no involvement of other employees at one extreme and at the opposite extreme;
employees are empowered to decide definite matters. In between, the degree of employees
participation in decision making is different. (Somech 2002) define four kinds of decision
making in organizations as follows:
1. Autocratic decision making: the superior makes the decision on his or her own without
attaining information from his o her subordinates.
2. Information sharing: The superior obtains the necessary information from the subordinate
and then makes the decision on his or her own.
3. Consultative decision making: The superior shares the problem with the subordinate, getting
his or her ideas and suggestions. Then he or she makes a decision.
4. Democratic decision making: The superior shares the problem with the subordinate, and
together they analyze the problem and arrive at a mutually acceptable solution.

The effects of participatory management

Two theoretical models are widely used to explain the effect of the participative
leadership behavior of superiors on subordinates work performance. The
motivational model and the exchange based model. Recognizing the mechanisms
by which participative leadership influences performance will help practitioners
better designing training and development programs aimed at enhancing
participative management. The motivational model states that employee through
participating in decision making are provided with greater reward from work.
Therefore, they try to improve their work performance by higher levels of
psychological empowerment. The exchange-based model implies that since
participative leadership behavior means more respect and concern for the
subordinate and higher level of trust in the superior, the subordinates are likely to
reciprocate their superiors by exhibiting a higher level of work performance. Usually
it is said that motivational mechanisms is for managerial subordinates (middle
managers who have both superiors and subordinates) and exchange-based
mechanisms for non-managerial subordinates (employees who have supervisors,
but no subordinates) (Huang et al. 2010)
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The effects
he effect of participative management has two dimensions:tangible means productivity, quality of
product, turnover rate, absenteeism rate and labourmanagement dispute rate and intangible
includes work morale, organizational climate, employee motivation and job satisfaction (Anon 1997)
Some of the positive effects of participative management are as followed:
Increasing the degree of "we" feeling or cohesiveness in the organization;
Providing the participants with an overall organizational point of view
Decreasing the amount of conflict, hostility, and cut throat competition among the participants;
Increasing the individuals' understanding of each other which leads to increased tolerance and
patience toward others;
Increasing the individual's free expression of his personality
Developing more innovative and creative work climate (Press 2010).
Participative management practices are popular motivational techniques, along with appraisal and
incentive systems, for improving employee performance (Gilberg, 1988) (Yohe 2008).
Some negative effects of employees participation are mentioned by some researchers. Reducing the
controlling power of the manager, which leads to decrease the speed of decision making process and
increase costs, is one of the main result of participation. In addition, making wrong decisions
because of the lack the experience and knowledge of management of employees can be another
problem (Anon 1997). Group problem solving and conflicts in the group because of different interests
in individuals in the group are also the key issues (Controversy 2008). The organizational situations,
however, may either strengthen or restrict the effects of participation (Anon 1997).

The benefits
A number of benefits that can be derived from PM are as follows:
A major source of pleasure and happiness for highly extroverted individuals because PM means more social
interaction(Benoliel and Somech 2010)
Promotes teamwork, cooperation in solving problems, and combining knowledge (Benoliel and Somech 2010)
Enhance the Feelings of being needed and wanted and that everyones opinions count will promote ownership
Decision making therefore benefits from wider range of knowledge, information, experience and increasing choices
and opportunities
PM promotes the adoption of problem solving, rather than a predictive blue print approach to management to ensure
flexibility, and maintain the ability to adapt to constantly changing realities
PM increases local capacity and empowerment. PM has to be introduced in which power is shared, everyone is given
an opportunity to participate, work is conducted by consensus and multidisciplinary teams are utilized to implement
processes. (Shagholi et al. 2010b)
Improvement of organizational productivity with new ideas discovered by employees from practical experience;
Giving employees a chance to exercise creativity in their jobs and thus strengthen their motivation as well as
increasing job satisfaction;
Ensuring that wages, bonuses and other remuneration are given on the basis of merit (Anon 1997)
The feeling of hostility towards orders from the top level of organization will be eliminated or decreased
Helps employees to feel able to drop their defenses and expand their energy productively instead (Shagholi et al.
2010a)
Provides more valid viewpoints because persons closest to the situation are involved develops interest and
enthusiasm of subordinates
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Implementation points
Maintaining a constant dialogue with employees is one way of avoiding
misunderstandings and promoting positive outcomes. (Scott-ladd, Travaglione, and
Marshall 2008) (Shagholi and Hussin 2009)
Employees should be given power, information, knowledge, and rewards (Yohe 2003)
Preserving individual employee rights (Yohe 2003).
Giving continuous feedback, both positive and negative to employees, on their
decisions (Controversy 2008).
Totally speaking, organizations which have a culture, or environment, that is accepting
of change. (Yohe 2003), follow certain guidelines (Nykodym et al. 2008), the role and
level of participation in them is transparent and well understood and the participatory
processes and expectations match the organizational context and employee
capabilities (Drehmer et al., 2000) are more successful at implementing and achieving
participatory management.
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Barriers
Participative management is often accompanied by conflict and struggle (Yohe 2008). The
major barriers to implement participative management processes are as follows:
1.Organizational bureaucracy and structure that focuses on uniformity, consistency, and
control from the top.
2. A culture that does not include participative management as a value or norm.
3. Subordinates that lack the desire or knowledge and thus, dont feel competent to participate
in decision-making.
4. Increase in workload and job stress.
5. Lack of incentives for participation.
6. Fear of making incorrect decisions.
Conflicting managerial priorities.
8. Poor or lack of communication (Shagholi et al. 2010b).
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