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Workplace Motivation
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Copyright 2015 Pearson Education Ltd.
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
Define motivation and describe the three
key elements of motivation.
Evaluate the applicability of early theories of
motivation.
Discuss the contemporary theories of
motivation
Describe the job characteristics model and
various types of work arrangements
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Key Elements of
Motivation
LO 1
and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. We will narrow the focus to
organizational goals in order to reflect our singular interest in work-related
behavior. Keep in mind that the level of motivation varies both between
individuals and within individuals at different times.
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Key Elements of
Motivation
LO 1
LO 2
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LO 2
LO 2
Theory X
Managers See Workers As
Disliking Work
Avoiding Responsibility
Self-Directed
Theory Y
Enjoying Work
Accepting Responsibility
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LO 2
Motivational Theories X
&Y
SA
Esteem
Social (Love )
Safety & Security
Physiological
Theory Y - a set of
assumptions of how to
manage individuals
motivated by higher
order needs
Theory X - a set of
assumptions of how to
manage individuals
motivated by lower
order needs
LO 2
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LO 2
Separate constructs
Hygiene Factors---Extrinsic
& Related to
Dissatisfaction
Motivators:
Achievement
Responsibility
Growth
LO 2
Managers who eliminate job dissatisfaction factors may not necessarily bring
about motivation. Exhibit 7-3 reveals that when hygiene factors are adequate,
people will not be dissatisfied. Neither will they be satisfied. To motivate
people, managers must emphasize intrinsically rewarding factors that are
associated with the work itself or to outcomes directly derived from it.
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Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
Goal-Setting
Theory
Goal-Setting
Theory
LO 3
Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is
needed.
Evidence suggests:
Specific goals increase performance.
Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy
goals.
Feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback.
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Contemporary Theories of
LO 3
Motivation
Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-efficacy theory is an individuals belief that he or she is capable
of performing a task.
Enactive mastery - gaining relevant experience with the task or job
Vicarious modeling - becoming more confident because you see
someone else doing the task
Verbal persuasion - occurring when a person is more confident
because someone convinces him that he has the skills
Arousal - leads to an energized state, driving a person to complete
the task
Also known as social cognitive theory and social learning theory.
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Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
Self-Efficacy Theory
LO 3
Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
Self-Efficacy Theory
LO 3
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LO 3
Equity Theory
Focuses on the desire to be treated with equity and to avoid
perceived inequity
Equity / inequity is a perceptual belief that one is being
treated fairly / unfairly in relation to others.
What role does equity play in motivation? Equity theory argues that individuals
make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes relative to those of others
and then respond to any inequities. If we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of
the relevant others with whom we compare ourselves, a state of equity is said to
exist. We perceive our situation as fair. When we see the ratio as unequal, we
experience equity tension.
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LO 3
Equity Theory
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LO 3
Organizational
Justice
Refinement of Equity Theory
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LO 3
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory argues that a tendency to
act in a certain way depends on an expectation
that the act will be followed by a given outcome
and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the
individual.
An employee will be motivated to exert a high
level of effort when he or she believes that:
Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal.
A good appraisal will lead to rewards.
The rewards will satisfy his or her personal
goals.
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LO 3
Expectancy Theory
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LO 3
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers arent motivated on their
jobs and do only the minimum necessary to get by.
Three questions employees need to answer in the affirmative if their motivation is
to be maximized:
1.
If I give maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal?
2.
If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards?
3.
If Im rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me?
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LO 4
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The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) proposes that any job may be described by five core job
dimensions:
1.Skill variety is the degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities, so the
worker can use a number of different skills and talent.
2.Task identity is he degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable
piece of work.
3.Task significance is the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work
of other people.
4.Autonomy is the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and
discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be
used in carrying it out.
5.Feedback is the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results
in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her
performance.
.The first three dimensionsskill variety, task identity, and task significancecombine to
create meaningful work the incumbent will view as important, valuable, and worthwhile.
From a motivational standpoint, the JCM proposes that individuals obtain internal rewards
when they learn (knowledge of results) that they personally (experienced responsibility)
have performed well on a task they care about (experienced meaningfulness). Individuals
with a high growth need are more likely to experience the critical psychological states when
their jobs are enrichedand respond to them more positivelythan are their counterparts
with low growth need.
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LO 4
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LO 4
The core dimensions of the job characteristics model (JCM) can be combined
into a single predictive index called the motivating potential score (MPS).
Evidence supports the JCM concept that the presence of a set of job characteristics
does generate higher and more satisfying job performance.
A few studies have tested the JCM in different cultures, but the results arent very
consistent.
The core dimensions of the JCM can be combined into a single predictive
index called the motivating potential score (MPS). To be high on motivating
potential, jobs must be high on at least one of the three factors that lead to
experienced meaningfulness, and high on both autonomy and feedback. If
jobs score high on motivating potential, the model predicts that motivation,
performance, and satisfaction will improve and absence and turnover will
be reduced.
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LO 4
Jobs Redesigned
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LO 4
Exhibit 82 shows guidelines for job enrichment. Job enrichment expands jobs by increasing the
degree to which the worker controls the planning, execution, and evaluation of the work.
The first guideline is combining tasks that puts fractionalized tasks back together to form a new
and larger module of work. Second is forming natural work units that make an employees tasks
create an identifiable and meaningful whole. Third, establishing client relationships increases the
direct relationships between workers and their clients. (Clients can be internal as well as outside
the organization.) Fourth, expanding jobs vertically gives employees responsibilities and control
formerly reserved for management. Finally, opening feedback channels lets employees know how
well they are doing and whether their performance is improving, deteriorating, or remaining
constant.
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LO 4
Alternative work arrangements are also used to boost motivation. They include flextime,
defined as flexible work hours like those shown in Exhibit 8-3. This allows employees some
discretion over when they arrive at and leave work. Benefits include reduced absenteeism,
increased productivity, reduced overtime expense, reduced hostility toward management, and
increased autonomy and responsibility for employees. A major drawback is that its not
applicable to all jobs or all workers.
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LO 4
Job Sharing
Two or more people split a 40-hour-a-week job.
Declining in use.
Can be difficult to find compatible pairs of employees who can
successfully coordinate the intricacies of one job.
Increases flexibility and can increase motivation and
satisfaction when a 40-hour-a-week job is just not practical.
Job sharing allows two or more individuals to split a traditional 40-hour-a-week job.
Only 12 percent of larger organizations now offer job sharing, a decline from 18
percent in 2008. Reasons it is not more widely adopted are likely the difficulty of
finding compatible partners to share a job and the historically negative perceptions
of individuals not completely committed to their job and employer. The major
drawback is finding compatible pairs of employees who can successfully coordinate
the intricacies of one job.
However, job sharing allows an organization to draw on the talents of more than one
individual in a given job. From the employees perspective, job sharing increases
flexibility and can increase motivation and satisfaction when a 40-hour-a-week job is
just not practical.
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LO 4
Telecommuting
Employees who do their work at home at least two days
a week on a computer that is linked to their office.
Virtual office
Well-known
organizations
actively
encourage
telecommuting
Telecommuting refers to employees who do their work at home at least two days a week on a
computer that is linked to their office.
The U.S. Department of the Census estimated there had been a 25% increase in selfemployed, home-based workers from 1999 to 2005, and a 20% increase in employed workers
who work exclusively from home. One recent survey of nearly 500 organizations found that 57%
of organizations offered telecommuting, with 36% allowing employees to telecommute at least
part of the time and 20% allowing employees to telecommute full time those percentages have
remained relatively stable since 2008.
Well-known organizations that actively encourage telecommuting include AT&T, IBM, American
Express, Sun Microsystems, and a number of U.S. government agencies.
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LO 4
Telecommuting Advantages
Larger labor pool
Higher productivity
Less turnover
Improved morale
Reduced office-space costs
There are reasons for and against telecommuting. The advantages
include a larger labor pool of workers, higher productivity, less turnover,
improved morale, and reduced office-space costs.
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LO 4
Telecommuting Disadvantages
Employer
Less direct supervision of employees.
Difficult to coordinate teamwork.
Difficult to evaluate non-quantitative
performance.
Employee
May not be noticed for his or her
Disadvantages
of telecommuting for the employer include less direct
efforts.
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LO 5
Employee Involvement
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LO 5
Employee Involvement
Participative management
Joint decision making.
Acts as a panacea for poor morale and low productivity.
Trust and confidence in leaders is essential.
Studies of the participation-performance have yielded mixed
results.
Participative management is the first of the options for employee involvement programs.
Common to all participative management programs is joint decision making, wherein
subordinates share a significant degree of decision making power with their immediate
superiors. Participative management has, at times, been promoted as a panacea for poor
morale and low productivity. But for it to work, employees must be engaged in issues relevant to
their interests so theyll be motivated, they must have the competence and knowledge to make a
useful contribution, and trust and confidence must exist among all parties.
Studies of the participationperformance relationship have yielded mixed findings. Organizations
that institute participative management do have higher stock returns, lower turnover rates, and
higher estimated labor productivity, although these effects are typically not large. A careful
review of research at the individual level shows participation typically has only a modest
influence on employee productivity, motivation, and job satisfaction. Of course, this doesnt
mean participative management cant be beneficial under the right conditions. But it is not a sure
means for improving performance.
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LO 5
Employee Involvement
Representative participation
Workers are represented by a small group of employees who
actually participate in decision making.
Almost every country in Western Europe requires
representative participation.
The two most common forms:
Works councils
Board representatives
Representative participation is spreading. Almost every country in Western Europe has some
type of legislation requiring it. It is the most widely legislated form of employee involvement
around the world. The goal is to redistribute power within an organization, putting labor on a
more equal footing with the interests of management and stockholders.
The two most common forms include works councils that link employees with management.
They are groups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted when
management makes decisions involving personnel. Second is board representatives, who are
employees who sit on a companys board of directors and represent the interests of the firms
employees. The overall influence of representative participation seems to be minimal. The
evidence suggests that works councils are dominated by management and have little impact
on employees or the organization. If one were interested in changing employee attitudes or in
improving organizational performance, representative participation would be a poor choice.
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You should give employees firm, specific goals, and they should get
feedback on how well they are faring in pursuit of those goals.
The study of what motivates individuals is ultimately key to organizational performance.
Employees whose differences are recognized, who feel valued, and who have the opportunity to
work in jobs that are tailored to their strengths and interests will be motivated to perform at the
highest levels. Employee participation also can increase employee productivity, commitment to
work goals, motivation, and job satisfaction.
Managers should:
Recognize individual differences. Spend the time necessary to understand whats important to
each employee. Design jobs to align with individual needs and maximize their motivation
potential.
Use goals and feedback. You should give employees firm, specific goals, and they should get
feedback on how well they are faring in pursuit of those goals.
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