MANF3510 Week 2

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Machine Accuracy Considerations

System resolution distinguish between:
Programming resolution = BLU < 0.01mm (typical for NC
machine tools)
E.g. PR = L / ( 2B 1 ), where L = length of axis, B = bit storage
capacity

Control resolution (CR) determined by the control unit

Smalles change in position that the feedback sensor can sense
(closed loop)
E.g. optical encoder, 1000 pulses / revolution + 10mm pitch
leadscrew = 1 pulse for each 0.01mm (10/1000) of linear
displacement of axis. The unit 0.01mm is the control resolution
of the axis (system)

For efficiency: programming resolution = control resolution

= BLU = system resolution
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Optical Encoder

Source: Position and Motion Sensors, Kester W, 2004

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Machine Accuracy cont

System accuracy
System inaccuracy due to control resolution = BLU
Displacements or movements < 1BLU cannot be
measured nor programmed
Inaccuracies associated with the machine itself
target

1 BLU
System accuracy = BLU + machine accuracy
Aim: system resolution = system accuracy
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Machine Accuracy cont

Repeatability
Statistical term
Positional deviation from the average of all positional deviations
Repeatability (6 sigma) will be better than the accuracy

High Productivity + Accuracy

High speed, feed, doc
Increased thermal deformation, deflections, vibrations
Solutions:
Improved strength and rigidity in welded steel machine structures
Low friction moving components
Avoiding lost motions (uncontrolled motions deflection, backlash,
free play etc) backlash take-up circuits (approach from same
direction)
Isolating thermal sources
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System Accuracy
Control resolution = CR
Addressable
points

Distribution
of mechanical
errors

Desired
position
Linear axis

Accuracy
= CR + 3

Repeatability
= + 3

Source: Automation, Production Systems and Computer Integrated Manufacturing, M P Groover, 2nd ed, 2001, Prentice Hall

encoder
(servo) (p)

encoder
gearing
(rge or re)

Gearing (rg)
Motor
(Nm)

Stepper
(ns, )

Servo
(np, e)

coupling

Ball screw
(N , p)

bed

structure

nut
displacement (xa)
velocity (vf)

Open Loop Control Stepper Motor

= 360 / ns

= step angle (deg)

rg = Nm / N

ns = step angles per rev

xa = ( p A ) / 360

np = pulses

np(x) = ( 360 xa rg ) / ( p

fp = pulse frequency (Hz)

A = rotational angle (deg)

Nm = rpm motor

N = rpm lead-screw

vf = N p

p = lead-screw pitch (mm/rev)

fp = ( vf ns rg ) / ( 60 p )

rg = gear ratio

CR = p / ( ns rg )

xa = axis displacement (mm)

vf = feed rate (mm/min)

CR = control resolution

= ( ns xa rg ) / p
N = ( 60 fp ) / ( ns rg )

Closed Loop Control Servo / Encoder

e = 360 / ns
n p = Ae / e
xa = ( p np ) / ( ns rge )
rge = Ne / N
vf = ( 60 p fp ) / ( ns rge )
Nm = ( rg vf ) / p
CR = p / ( ns rg rge )

ns = encoder resolution (pulses / rev )

e = angular resolution (deg / pulse)

np = pulses sensed by encoder

fp = pulse frequency (Hz)

Ae = angle of rotation encoder shaft (deg)

Ne = rpm encoder shaft

N = rpm lead-screw

Nm = rpm motor

p = lead-screw pitch (mm/rev)

rge = gear ratio (encoder / axis)

rg = gear ration (axis / motor)

xa = axis displacement (mm)

vf = feed rate (mm/min)

CR = control resolution
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Improving Machine Accuracy

Mechanics
Improved sliding surfaces (dovetails) reduced friction
Coulomb friction (surfaces in contact) vs fluid film lubrication
Linear rolling element (roller bearing slides), hydrostatic bearings,
ball bearing lead-screws
Anti-backlash and anti-wear methods (double nut ball bearing
configuration with preload)

Improved power transmission and drives

Stiffness of machine

Control
Optimum conditions adaptive control
Control of cutting edge of tool (on-line tool measurement)
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Improving Machine Accuracy cont

Thermal behavior
Sources of heat machining process, spindle, motor and
drives, friction of slideways and leadscrews
Causes deformation of carriage, table, spindle, machine,
workpiece
1oC temp difference along 1m can cause error of 0.01mm
Remedies include: separation of heat sources, cooling,
design (superposition of deflections)

Setup
Minimize deflection and chatter
Control over forces
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Increasing Productivity with NC

Total production time
Actual cutting time
f (cutting speed vc, feed f, doc a)
Adaptive control tradeoff cost vs speed

Idle and traverse motion time

f (traverse velocity, rigidity of machine, quality of drives,
leadscrews, type of slides)
Adaptive control

Loading and unloading time

f (fixture design, automation, multiple processing, multiple
locations on table one for machining rest for loading)

Tool changing time

Automatic tool changing (carousel, chain type)
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System Devices
Drives
Hydraulic

High power machine tools & robots

High angular acceleration
Small time constants (response, rise time, settling time)
Transmission lines cause dynamic lags
Viscosity variations with temperature changes
Maintenance intensive (oil supply)
Main elements
Oil supply (sump)
Hydraulic power supply

Pump (gear pump, radial or axial displacement pump)

Electric motor (3-phase induction) to drive pump
Filtering
Check valve (backflow prevention)
Pressure regulating valve (controls supply pressure)
Accumulator (stores hydraulic energy, smoothes pulsating flow)

Servo-valve for each axis of motion (controls flow)

Hydraulic motor for each axis of motion
Linear hydraulic cylinder (for linear motion)
Rotary type motor for angular motion

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System Devices cont

Drives cont.
DC servo-motor
Main versions used in NC:
Separately excited dc motor with constant field excitation
(constant flux)
Permanent magnet field (fewer thermal problems)
Smooth speed control over a wide range (PWM or voltage
magnitude)
Adequate torque
Armature
(rotor)
Field
(stator)

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System Devices cont

Drives cont
Stepper motor
Main version is the permanent magnet stepper motor
Equivalent to an incremental digital drive (1 pulse 1 angular
increment or step)
Speed proportional to pulse frequency
Suitable for open-loop control systems (cheaper than closed
loop)
Accuracy depends on number of steps per revolution
Limited torque
Not used frequently

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System Devices cont

Drives cont
AC synchro-motors
Brushless (less maintenance)
Velocity controlled by voltage frequency supplied to motor
instead of voltage magnitude
High cost motor components (e.g. inverter)

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System Devices cont

Feedback devices
Used in closed loop control systems
Common devices used
Rotary encoders coupled to machine leadscrews

Position and velocity signals

Pulse counting and processing by microcontroller
Incremental (common NC tools) or absolute (noise free - robots)
Can also read direction (two photocells with 90o or wavelength shift)

Resolvers

Shaft positioning measuring device (not speed)

Directly coupled to leadscrew
Correcting signal to motor drive
Derivative is the Inductosyn

Precision measuring device, large number of stator poles & 1 rotor coil
Voltage applied to rotor coil (as opposed to resolver)
Accuracy 1m possible
Rotary or linear
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System Devices cont

Feedback devices cont
Common devices used cont
Tachometers (dc generator)
Feedback of servomotor speed
dc voltage

dc
motor

Amp

Tachometer
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System Devices cont

Counting devices
Digital logic circuits
Boolean gates (AND, OR, NAND, NOR, EXCLUSIVE OR)
Bit counters
Decoders

D-A converters

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Machine Performance: Example

A stepping motor of 200 steps / revolution is
mounted on the leadscrew of an NC drilling
machine. The leadscrew pitch is 2mm.
BLU = 2/200 = 0.01mm

If the rotor receives a pulse frequency of 2000

pulses per second, what is the linear velocity, vf in
m/min?
= pulses frequency x BLU = 2000 x 60 x 0.01 x 10-3
= 1.2 m/min

vf

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Example continued
How long will it take to travel a distance of
300mm at a speed of 1.2m.min, if the acceleration
and deceleration between zero and maximum
speed is linear and takes 1 second each?
Acceleration distance = deceleration distance = v x t =
Vmax x t = 600 mm/min x 1 sec / 60 = 10mm
Max speed traverse distance = 300 (2 x 10) = 280mm
Time at maximum speed = 280 / 1200 = 14 seconds
Total time = 14 + 2 = 16 seconds

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Machine Accuracy Example

Leadscrew has a pitch of 5mm/rev. Stepper motor
has 150 steps/rev. = 0.005mm.
Determine the CR: CR = 5.0 / 150 = 0.0333mm = BLU
Repeatability = + 3 = + 0.015mm = a range of
0.03mm
Accuracy = CR + 3 = 0.5 (0.0333) + 3 (0.005) =
0.03165mm

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Limiting Factor for the CR

Bit storage capacity defining the axis coordinate
value
B = the number of bits in the storage register
Number of control points into which the axis can be
divided = 2B
CR = L / 2B 1, where L is the axis range
The actual CR of the positioning system is the maximum
of the two values, the other given by:
CR = [ Leadscrew pitch / rev ] / [ number of steps / rev ]
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Example
Worktable axis length is 550mm
16 bits in the binary register used by the digital
controller to store the programmed position
CR = 550 / [ 216 1 ] = 550 / 65635 = 0.0084mm
Therefore, CR = MAX {0.0333, 0.0084}

= 0.0333mm
Hence, mechanical errors tend to dominate

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