Some Terminologies

White matter : myelinated fibre tracts

Gray matter : areas of neuronal cell bodies
Tracts : collections of axons subserving similar
function or location in CNS
Nerves : peripheral axons
Nucleus : collection of neurons subserving similar
function in CNS e.g., caudate nucleus, red nuclei
Brainstem: Midbrain (Mesencephalon) + Pons +
Medulla Oblongata

Folia : Leaves
Vermis: Worm

Brain components

Table 5.3 (1)

Page 144
Cerebral cortex

Cerebral cortex
Basal nuclei
(lateral to thalamus)

Basal nuclei
Thalamus
(medial)

Thalamus
Diencephalon
Hypothalamus

Hypothalamus

Cerebellum
Cerebellum
Midbrain
Brain stem
(midbrain, pons,
and medulla)

(Mesencephalon)

Brain stem

Pons
Medulla
oblongata
Spinal cord

The Cerebellum

Located dorsal to the pons and medulla

Makes up 11% of the brains mass
Cerebellar activity occurs subconsciously
Provides precise timing and appropriate
patterns of skeletal muscle contraction
Programming ballistic movements

Acts as comparator for movements

Comparing intended and actual movement

Correction of ongoing movements

Internal & external feedback
Deviations from intended movement

Motor learning
Shift from conscious ---> unconscious

Anatomy of the Cerebellum

2 symmetrical hemispheres connected medially by the Vermis
Folia: Transversely oriented gyri
3 lobes in each hemisphere: Anterior, Posterior, Flocculonodular (FN)
Neural arrangement: Gray matter (Cortex), White matter (Internal),
Scattered cerebellar nuclei: dentate, globose, emboliform, fastigial
Arbor vitae (tree of life): distinctive treelike pattern of the white matter
Folium

Cerebellum
Primary fissure

Anterior Lobe
Regulation of
muscle tone,
coordination of
skilled voluntary
movement

Posterior
Lobe

Planning and
initiation of
voluntary activity

Flocculo-Nodular
Lobe (FN lobe)

Maintenance of
balance, control
of eye movements

Vestibulocerebellum
Spinocerebellum

Folia

Cerebrocerebelum

Cerebellum
Intermediate part

Lateral part

Cerebellum: the Structure

Inputs to the cerebellar cortex: Climbing fibers & Mossy fibers
Climbing fibers: originate in the inferior olive of the medulla
Mossy fibers: originate in all the cerebellar afferent tracts apart from inferior olive
Purkinje cells: The final output of the cerebellar cortex

3 Layered
Cerebellar
Cortex

Cerebellum: 3 layered cortex

Climbing fibers: excite the Purkinje cells
Mossy fibers: excite the granule cells
Granule cells: make excitatory contact with the Purkinje cells
Purkinje cells: Tonic inhibition on the activity of the neurons of the cerebellar nuclei
=> All excitatory inputs will be converted to the inhibition
=> Removing the excitatory influence of the cerebellar inputs (erasing)

Cerebellar Peduncles
Three paired fiber tracts connect the cerebellum to the brainstem:
Superior peduncles connect the cerebellum to the midbrain;
Middle peduncles connect the cerebellum to the pons and to the axis of
the brainstem;
Inferior peduncles connect the cerebellum to the medulla.

Cerebellar
Peduncles

Cerebellar Peduncles
Superior peduncles (to the midbrain):
Fibers originate from neurons in the deep cerebellar nuclei &
communicates with the motor cortex via the midbrain and
the diencephalon (thalamus)
Middle peduncles (to the pons):
Cerebellum receives information advising it of voluntary
motor activities initiated by motor cortex
Inferior peduncles (to the medulla):
Afferents conveying sensory information from muscle
proprioceptors throughout the body & from the vestibular
nuclei of the brainstem (Spinal cord)

Cerebellar Input

Inputs to cerebellum from spinocerebellar tracts have a

somatotopic organization.
2 maps of body

Primary fissure

Signals from the motor cortex, which is also arranged somatotopically,

project to corresponding points in the sensory maps of the cerebellum.

Cerebellar Inputs
Vermis

Receives input from spinal cord regarding somatosensory and

kinesthetic information (intrinsic knowledge of the position of the limbs)
Damage leads to difficulty with postural adjustments (cerebellar ataxia)

Intermediate Zone

Receives input from the red nucleus and somatosensory information

from the spinal cord
Damage results in rigidity & difficulty in moving limbs

Lateral Zone

Receives input from the motor and association cortices through the pons
Projects to the dentate nucleus, which projects back to primary and
premotor cortex
Damage leads to 4 types of deficits:
- Ballistic movements (cerebellar ataxia)
- Coordination of multi-joint movement (lack of coordination: asynergia)
- Muscle learning (loss of muscle tone: hypotonia)
- Movement timing

Outputs of the Cerebellum

Cerebellar nuclei: dentate, globose, emboliform, fastigial
Dentate nuclei: project contralaterally through
the superior cerebellar peduncle to
neurons in the contralateral thalamus &
from thalamus to motor cortex
Func.: influence planning and initiation of
voluntary movement
Emboliform & Globose nuclei: project mainly
to the contralateral red nuclei & a small
group is projected to the motor cortex
Red Nuclei Rubrospinal Tract
control of proximal limb muscles

Fastigial nuclei: project to the vestibular nuclei

& to the pontine and medullary reticular
formation
Vestibulospinal & Reticulospinal tracts

Inputs and outputs of the Cerebellum

Clinical Findings and Localization of Cerebellar Lesions

Ataxia refers to disordered contractions of agonist and antagonist
muscles and lack of coordination between movements at
different joints typically seen in patients with cerebellar lesions.
Normal movements require coordination of agonist and antagonist
muscles at different joints in order for movement to have
smooth
trajectory.
In ataxia movements have irregular, wavering
course consisting of continuous
overshooting, overcorrecting and
then overshooting
again around the intended trajectory.
Dysmetria = abnormal undershoot or overshoot
during movements toward a target
(finger-nose-finger test).

Cerebellum and Motor Learning

Deficits in learning complex motor tasks
after cerebellar lesions
fMRI studies : cerebellum active during
learning of novel movements
Postulated that cerebellar nuclei store
certain motor memories
May be involved in cognitive functions

Cerebellum: Control of Voluntary Movement

Cerebellum has no direct connection to the spinal motoneurons (indirect effect).

Information sources: lesions & damages &

experimental stimulation of cerebellar nuclei
Primary function:
1. To supplement & correlate the activities of other motor areas
2. Control of posture
3. Correction of rapid movements initiated by cerebral cortex
4. Motor learning
Frequency of nerve impulses in the climbing fibers almost doubles when a monkey learns a new task

Movement Control:
a. Inputs from motor cortex inform the cerebellum of an intended
movement before it is initiated
b. Sensory information is then received via the
spinocerebellar tract
c. An error signal is generated and is fed back to the cortex

Cerebellar Processing
Cerebellum receives impulses of the intent
to initiate voluntary muscle contraction
Proprioceptors and visual signals inform
the cerebellum of the bodys condition
Cerebellar cortex calculates the best way
to perform a movement
A blueprint of coordinated movement is
sent to the cerebral motor cortex
Cerebellar Cognitive Function
Plays a role in language and problem solving
Recognizes and predicts sequences of events

Table 5.3 (1)

Page 144

Diencephalon

Thalamus
(medial)
Hypothalamus

Central core of the forebrain

Consists of three paired structures
thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
Encloses the third ventricle

Diencephalon

Table 5.3 (1)

Page 144

Thalamus

Thalamus
(medial)

Hypothalamus

Paired, egg-shaped masses that form the

superolateral walls of the third ventricle
Contains four groups of nuclei :
anterior, ventral, dorsal, and posterior
Nuclei project and receive fibers from the
cerebral cortex

Thalamus

Thalamic Function
Afferent impulses from all senses
converge and synapse in the thalamus
Impulses of similar function are sorted out,
edited, and relayed as a group
All inputs ascending to the cerebral cortex
pass through the thalamus
Plays a key role in mediating sensation,
motor activities, cortical arousal, learning,
and memory

Hypothalamic Nuclei

Table 5.3 (1)

Page 144
Thalamus
(medial)

Hypothalamus

Hypothalamic Function
Regulates blood pressure, rate and force of
heartbeat, digestive tract motility, rate and depth
of breathing, and many other visceral activities
Is involved with perception of pleasure, fear, and
rage
Controls mechanisms needed to maintain
normal body temperature
Regulates feelings of hunger and satiety
Regulates sleep and the sleep cycle
Endocrine Functions of the Hypothalamus

The Cerebral Cortex

Central sulcus

Frontal
lobe

Parietal
lobe
Parietooccipital
notch

Occipital
lobe
Lateral
fissure

Temporal
lobe

Preoccipital
notch

The cerebral cortex

Cerebral Cortex : outer layer of gray matter

It covers an inner core of white matter
The gross structure has gyri and sulci

Different Lobes:

Frontal : voluntary motor activity, speaking ability, and

elaboration of thought; stimulation of different areas of its
primary motor cortex moves different body regions, again
primarily on the opposite side of the body.
Parietal : somatosensory processing; each region of its cortex
receives somaesthetic and proprioceptive input from a specific
body area, primarily from the opposite body side.
Temporal : receives sound sensation
Occipital : initial processing of visual input

Supplementary motor area

(programming of complex movement)

Primary motor cortex

(Voluntary movement)

Premotor cortex

Central
sulcus

(coordination of complex
movements)

Prefrontal association
cortex

Somatosensory cortex
(Somesthetic sensation and
proprioception)

Posterior parietal cortex

(integration of somatosensory and

visual input)

Parietal lobe

(planning for voluntary activity;

decision making;
personality traits)

Wernickes area
(speech
understanding)

Frontal lobe

Parietal-temporal-occipital
association cortex

Brocas area

(speech formation)

(integraton of all sensory inputimp in language)

Primary auditory cortex

Occipital lobe
Limbic association cortex
(motivation, emotion, memory)

Temporal lobe
Primary visual cortex

Parietal Lobe - Somatosensory cortex

Somesthetic sensation - sensations from the surface of the body - touch, pain,
pressure, heat and cold
This info is projected to the somatosensory cortex - site for initial cortical
processing and perception of somesthetic and proprioceptive input
Body regions are topographically mapped - sensory homunculus

Sensory cortex - receives information from the opposite side of the body
(e.g., damage on right side results in sensory loss on left side)

Simple awareness of touch, pressure, temp or pain is first detected by the

thalamus, but cortex is required for perception - intensity and spatial
discrimination
This info is then projected (via fibre tracts) to association cortices for analysis
and integration of sensory information - eg., perception of texture, firmness,
temp, shape, position, location of an object you are holding)

Regions of the
cortex involved
in motor control

Frontal lobe - Motor cortex

Primary motor cortex - voluntary control for muscle movement

Motor cortex on each side controls muscles on the opposite side of

the body

Tracts originating in the cortex cross (at level of pyramids) before

continuing down spinal cord to terminate on -motor neurons that
directly innervate skeletal muscle

Body regions are represented topographically - motor homunculus

Extent of representation in the motor cortex is proportional to the

precision and complexity of motor skills required

Other cerebral brain regions

important for motor control
Primary motor cortex does not initiate voluntary movement
Premotor cortex (M1)
anterior to the primary motor cortex
acts in response to external cues
must be informed of bodys position in relation to target
Supplementary motor area (SMA)
responds to internal cues
plays a preparatory role in programming complex
sequences of movement
Posterior parietal cortex
It is posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex
informs premotor cortex of position

Temporal lobe
Contains auditory centres that receive sensory fibres
from the cochlea of each ear
Also involved in the interpretation and association of
auditory and visual information
Temporal lobe contains the hippocampus and the
amygdala
Involves in memory

Cortical Association areas

Prefrontal association cortex

Functions: planning for voluntary activity, decision-making, creativity,
and developing personality traits.
Site of operation of working memory - temporary storage and actively
manipulation of information used in reasoning and planning

parietal-temporal-occipital association cortex

Integrates somatic, auditory, and visual sensations from three lobes

limbic association cortex

Being involved with motivation, emotion, and memory

The cerebral hemispheres

lateralization/dominance

Each cerebral hemisphere receives information from both sides

of the body

The left cerebral hemisphere excels in performing logical,

analytical, sequential, and verbal tasks
Better at describing facial appearances

The right cerebral hemisphere excels in spatial perception and

artistic and musical talents
Better at recognizing faces

The limbic system

Refers to several forebrain structures that function together

Cingulate gyrus
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Septal nuclei

Closed circuit of information flow between the limbic system and the
thalamus and hypothalamus

Limbic system and hypothalamus - cooperate in the neural basis of

emotional states

Limbic System

Figure 12.18

Limbic system
Plays a key role in emotion and works with the higher
cerebral cortex to control behavioral patterns.
Aggression --> lesions of amygdala produce docility, while
stimulation results in rage and aggression
Fear --> stimulation of amygdala and hypothalamus can
produce fear, while ablation results in an absence of fear
Goal-directed behaviour - reward and punishment systemstimulation of certain areas function as a reward, while
stimulation of other areas results in a punishment shock