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Types of crystal
The physical properties of a material depend on its structure.
Materials in which the atoms or molecules have a regular
arrangement (lattice) are called crystals.
There are four basic types of crystal:

ionic a lattice formed by positively and

negatively-charged ions.

metallic a regular lattice of positively-charged metal

ions surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons.

macromolecular (giant covalent) a regular lattice of

atoms held together by covalent bonds.

molecular (simple covalent) a regular lattice of

covalently-bonded molecules held together by
intermolecular forces.
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Properties of ionic substances

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Properties of sodium chloride

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Properties of metallic substances

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Properties of metallic and ionic crystals

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Properties of metallic and ionic crystals

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The structure of diamond

Allotropes are different
forms of the same element.
Diamond is an allotrope of
carbon, and is an example of
a macromolecular crystal.
Each carbon atom is bonded
by covalent bonds to four
other carbon atoms, creating
a rigid, very strong 3D
structure.

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Properties of diamond

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The structure of graphite

Graphite is another allotrope of carbon. Like diamond, it is
a macromolecular crystal. However, it has very different
physical properties because the carbon atoms are
arranged in a different way.
Each carbon atom is
covalently bonded to three
others in the same 2D
plane, forming layers.
These layers are held weakly
together by van der Waals
forces, not covalent bonds.
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Properties of graphite

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Allotropes of carbon

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Other allotropes of carbon

Another class of carbon compounds are the fullerenes.
Buckminsterfullerene is one type
of fullerene. It contains 60 carbon
atoms, each of which is bonded to
three others by two single bonds
and one double bond.
Carbon nanotubes are another
type of fullerene. They are
cylindrical carbon molecules. They
have many potential applications,
such as transporting drugs around
the body and as components in
electrical transistors.
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The structure of iodine

Solid iodine has a molecular structure consisting of a
regular arrangement of iodine molecules (I2) held in place
by van der Waals forces.

The melting point of iodine

is low (387 K) compared to
that of diamond, because
less energy is required to
break van der Waals forces
than covalent bonds.

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The structure of ice

In ice, water molecules form
four hydrogen bonds with
neighbouring water molecules,
creating a repeating tetrahedral
structure.
Usually a solid is more dense
than the same material in its
liquid phase. However, cold water
(around 4 C) is denser than ice.

hydrogen
bond

This is because not all the water molecules are hydrogen

bonded, and the mean distance between molecules is less
than the hydrogen bond length.
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Covalent crystals: true or false?

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Covalent structures

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Bonding and lone pairs

A pair of electrons in a
covalent bond are called a
bonding pair. Pairs of
electrons that are not
involved in bonding are
called lone pairs.

lone
pair

bonding
pair

Electron pairs are clouds of negative charge, so there is

mutual repulsion between them, forcing them as far apart
as possible.
This means the number of electron pairs around the central
atom(s) determines the basic shape of the molecule.
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Describing shapes of molecules

The shape of a molecule can be described in terms of its
bond lengths and bond angles.

Bond length is the distance

between the nuclei of two
bonded atoms.

Bond angle is the angle

between two covalent bonds.

bond
angle

bond
length
Counting electrons enables the basic shape of the molecule
and its approximate bond angles to be predicted.
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Shapes of molecules

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Effect of lone pairs on shape

The number of lone pairs in a molecule is calculated by
subtracting the number of bonding pairs from the total
number of electron pairs in the outer principal energy level.
The shape of a molecule with lone pairs is based on the
basic shape for the total number of outer electron pairs,
but with a lone pair replacing one of the bonds.
tetrahedral

pyramidal

replacing one
bonding pair
with a lone pair
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V-shaped

replacing another
bonding pair with
a lone pair
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Working out basic shapes of molecules

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Molecular shape calculations

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Effect of lone pairs on bond angles

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Effect of lone pairs on bond angles

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Shapes of molecules activity

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Glossary

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Whats the keyword?

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Multiple-choice quiz

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