1.

ON THE BASIS OF LOAD CAPACITY

A)

HTV(TRANSPORT) OR HMV(MOTOR) EG. TRUCKS, BUSES ETC.

B)

LTV EG. PICKUP VAN, STATION WAGON ETC

C)

LMV EG. CARS, JEEPS ETC

2. ON THE BASIS OF WHEELS

D)

TWO WHEELER EG. SCOOTER, MOTOR CYCLE

E)

THREE WHEELER, EG. AUTORICKSHAW

F)

FOUR WHEELER EG. CAR, JEEP, TRUCKS

3. On the basis of Fuel used

A) Petrol vehicle, eg. Motorcycle, scooter
B) Diesel Engine eg. Trucks, buses.
C) Electric vehicle
D) Steam vehicle eg. Steam engine vehicles (now obsolete)
E) Gas vehicle eg. LPG and CNG(Compressed natural gas)
4. On the basis of Body type
A) Sedan with two doors
B) Sedan with four doors
C) Station wagon
D) Convertible eg. Jeep
E) Van
F) Special purpose vehicle eg. Ambulance

5. On the basis of Transmission

A) Conventional vehicles with manual transmission eg. Car with 5 gears
B) Semi automatic eg. Volvo
C) Automatic.
6. On the basis of position of engine
A) Engine in front
B) Engine in Rear side eg. Nano car
7. On the basis of purpose
A) Passenger vehicles eg. Buses, P. trains
B) Goods vehicles. Eg. Lorry
8. On the basis of the side of drive
A) Left hand drive
B) Right hand drive

9. On the basis of the suspension system used

Conventional leaf spring
Independent Coil spring, torsion bar, Pneumatic

Major components of an
Automobile

1. Chassis and Frame

2. Engine or Power plant

3. Transmission system (Clutch and Gear Box)

A) Clutch
B) Final Drive (Differential gears)
C) Gear box

4. Braking System

5. Steering system

6. Front Axle

7. Suspension System

Classification of Chassis

1. According to construction
a) Ladder Chassis

b) Backbone Chassis

c) Monocoque Chassis

2.According to control
a)

Conventional forward chassis

b) Semi forward chassis

c) Full forward chassis

3. Accoding to fitting the engine

A) Engine at front and drive given to rear

B) Engine is fitted at front & drive is given to front wheel

C) Engine fitted at the centre of the chassis

D) Engine fitted at the rear

4. According to the number of wheels fitted in the vehicles and the number of
driving wheels
A) 4x2 drive chassis vehicle It has 4 wheels out of which 2 are driving
B) 4x4 drive chassis vehicle It has 4 wheels and all 4 wheels are driving
C) 6x2 drive chassis vehicle It has 6 wheels out of which 2 are driving wheels
D) 6x4 drive chassis vehicle It has 6 wheels out of which 4 are driving wheels

FRAME

Frame is the main part of the chassis on which remaining parts of

the chassis are mounted.

It should be extremely rigid and strong to withstand the shocks

and vibrations.

It is narrow at the front for providing short turning radius to front

wheels and it widens out at the rear side to provide larger space
in the body.
FUNCTIONS OF FRAME

To carry load of the passengers or goods carried in the body.

To support the load of the body, engine, gear box etc.,

To withstand the forces caused due to the sudden braking or

acceleration.

Types of Frame

1. Conventional frame
It is non load carrying frame. The load is transferred to suspension.

2. Semi integral frame

The front half portion of
The frame can be easily
Replaced.
3. Integral frame
It has no frame, a unitized
Frame-body construction.

Types of section used in frames

1. Channel section
2. Tubular section
3. Box section

Important Chassis frames

1. Conventional frame
2. Tubular space frame
3. Monocoque frame
4. ULSAB(Ultra Light Steel Auto Body) Monocoque
5. Backbone frame
6. Carbon fibre
7. Aluminium space frame
SUSPENSION SYSTEM
The suspension system includes all the parts which are used for damping
action.
The main function of suspension is to absorb the shocks and vibrations to
give comfort to the rider and passengers.
1.

Spring type suspension (Leaf and coil spring)

2.

Torsion bar and telescopic shock absorber.

Leaf spring

These springs are made by placing several flat strips one over the other and made up of
steel plates. One flat strip is called as leaf.

Coil Spring

It is made up of steel wire in the

Form of a coil, it absorbs shocks
When it is compressed.

TORSION BARS

It is a steel rod which can take torsional and shear stresses, it act as a
spring.

BODY

It is a superstructure for all vehicles.

The chassis and the body makes the complete vehicle.
A body consists of windows and doors, engine cover, roof, luggage cover etc.

Importance of vehicle body design

1.

Weight of the body is about 40% of total weight of the car and 60-70% of total weight
of buses.

2.

The reduction of body weight will also improve the fuel economy.

3.

The body of the vehicle determines its aerodynamic characteristics.

Requirements of the vehicle body

1.

It must be strong enough to withstand all types of forces.

2.

Stresses induced in the body should be distributed evenly to all portions.

3.

Weight of the body should be as minimum as possible.

4. It should have minimum number of components.

5. The shape of the body should be such that air drag is minimum.
6. It should give good finish in shape and colour.
Types of automobile bodies
1.

Passenger body

2.

Commercial body

According to the shell forming and exterior of a car, bodies are classified as
3.

Hatchback Two door passenger with a door at back

4.

Sports car Small two seated automobile

5.

Four door sedan Passenger compartment with four doors and four side windows

6.
7.

Limousine Large, six seated passenger compartment.

Convertible Car with a removable roof.

Hardtop Two door passenger compartment

Van Small vehicle used to carry passenger

Pick-up truck A small truck.

Body construction and its components

Components of car body

1.

Washer nozzle(which sprays liquid on windshield)

2.

Front fascia (body below the bumpers)

3.

Bumper molding

4.

Cowl

5.

Fender

6.

Grile

7.

Headlight

8.

Hood

9.

Outside mirror

10.

Windshield wiper

11.

Windshield

12.

Body side molding

13.

Door lock

14.

Mud flap

15. Door
16.Door handle
17.Window
18.Tyre
19.Wheel cover
20.Fuel door
21.Trunk
22.Quarter window
23.Drip molding
24.Center post
25.Roof
26.Sliding sunroof
27.Antenna

AUTOMOTIVE VEHICLE AERODYNAMICS

Automotive aerodynamics is the study of the aerodynamics of road vehicles.

Its main goals are reducing drag and wind noise, minimizing noise emission.
Vehicle aerodynamics includes three interacting flow fields
1.

Flow past vehicle body

2.

Flow past vehicle components (wheels, heat exchanger, brakes, windshield)

3.

Flow in passenger compartment

Dynamic characteristics of vehicles

There are several forces act on a vehicle while it is in motion,
Air resistance, grade resistance, rolling resistance and curve resistance.


1.

Aerodynamic Resistance is composed of

Turbulent air flow around vehicle body (85%)

2. Friction of air over vehicle (12%)

3. Vehicle component resistance, from radiators and air vents (3%)

a)Drag force (D)
Drag is the force of air resistance pushing against the front of the car while it is moving.
Drag force has a tremendous effect on the way a car accelerates, handles and achieves
better fuel consumption.
A vehicle with better aerodynamics is the one that has least effect of air resistance.

a) Drag force is acting at height hD D = 0.5 CDAV2

b) Lift force
Lift force is the vertical component of resultant force caused by the pressure distribution
on the body.
Lift is the force that opposes the weight of an object and raises it into the air.
c) Cross wind force (s):
Cross wind force is acting in the lateral direction, on the side of the vehicle. This is
formed by asymmetric flow of air around the vehicle.
This is formed by asymmetric flow of air around the body. These forces are acting at the
centre of pressure instead of centre of gravity and hence cause the following moments.

Pitching moment (PM) caused by drag or lift force in y-axis

Rolling moment (RM) caused by crosswind force about x-axis
Yawing moment (YM) - caused by crosswind force about z-axis

Rolling resistance :

It is a force that offers resistance to rolling motion, and it is due to the frictional effect of
moving parts of the vehicle.

It depends on the speed of vehicle and type of pavement().

Rrl = frl W

(frl = Rolling resistance coefficient, W-weight)

Grade resistance :

When a vehicle move up a grade, a component of the weight acts

Downward, along the plane highway.
Rg = (WxG)

(Rg - Grade resistance, W gross weight)

Curve resistance :

When a vehicle turns in a curve, external forces act on the front wheels of the vehicle.
This resistance is depends on the radius of the curve, the gross weight of the vehicle and
the velocity at which the vehicle is moving.

Traction :

Traction is defined as the adhesive friction of the tire to the road surface.
Three types Driving, Braking and cornering traction.

IC Engines

Heat Engines : It is a type of engine or machine which derives heat energy from the
combustion() of fuel or any other source and converts this into mechanical energy.
It is two types
1.

External combustion engines (E.C)

2.

Internal combustion engines (I.C)

If the combustion takes place inside the cylinder, then it is I.C engine
Eg. Petrol, Diesel engines
If the combustion takes place outside the cylinder, then it is E.C engine
Eg. Steam() engine, Steam turbine.

Basic terms connected with I.C engines

1.Bore The inside diameter of the cylinder is known as bore, measured in mm.
2.Stroke Distance travelled by the piston between two dead centres.
3.Dead centers They correspond to the position occupied by the piston
At the end of its stroke where the centre lines of the connecting rod
And crank are in the same straight line.
4.TDC & BDC Top most and lowest position of the piston inside the cylinder.
5.Crank throw Distance between the centre of main shaft and centre of
Crank pin.

Piston displacement or swept volume : It is the volume through which the piston
sweeps for its one stroke.

Clearance volume : volume included between piston and the cylinder head when the
piston is at TDC.

Compression ratio : ratio of the total cylinder volume to the clearance volume.

Piston speed :
Distance travelled by the piston in one minute.
Piston speed = 2 LN m/min, where L length of stroke and N RPM of engine

WORKING OF FOUR STROKE SPARK IGNITION ENGINE (4 STROKE PETROL

ENGINE)

4 Strokes
Suction
Compression
Power
Exhaust

WORKING OF A 4 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE :

WORKING OF 2 STROKE PETROL ENGINE :

Classification of IC Engines :

IC Engines are classified as follows

1.

According to type of fuel used

a)

Petrol engine

b)

Diesel engine

c)

Gas engine

2. According to ignition method

d)

Spark ignition engine

e)

Compression ignition engine

3. According to number of strokes per cycle

f)

Four stroke engine

g)

Two stroke engine

4. According to air standard cycle

h)

Otto cycle engine

i)

Diesel cycle engine

j)

Dual cycle engine

5. According to number of cylinders used

a)

Single cylinder engine

b)

Multi cylinder engine

6. According to position of cylinder

c)

Horizontal engine

d)

Vertical engine

e)

Radial engine

f)

V engine

7. According to fuel supply system

g)

Carburettor engine

h)

Air-injection engine

i)

Airless (or) solid injection

8. According to the cooling system used

j)

Air cooled engine

k)

Water cooled engine

9. According to speed of engine

a)

Slow speed engine

b)

Medium speed engine

c)

High speed engine

10. According to location of valves

d)

Overhead valve engine

e)

Side valve engine

IC Engine Components
Functions and Materials :
10. Crank case
Components common to both petrol and
diesel engines
1.

Cylinder

2.

Piston

3.

Cylinder head

4.

Piston rings

5.

Gudgeon pin

6.

Connecting rod

7.

Crank

8.

Crankshaft

9.

Bearings

11. Flywheel
12. Governor
13. Valves or port mechanisms

Cylinder : The cylinder is the closed part which contains the gas mixture under pressure
and guides the piston, the combustion of the gas mixture takes place inside the
cylinder.
Cylinder head : One end of cylinder is closed by means of removable cylinder head
which usually contains inlet and exhaust valve.
Piston : A piston is fitted to each cylinder to receive gas pressure and transmit the force
to the connecting rod. The piston must provide the following
a)

Give tight seal to the cylinder through bore

b)

Slide freely

c)

Be light

d)

Be strong

Piston rings :Piston rings are generally loose fit with cylinders to avoid the sticking of
piston to cylinder during expansion on combustion.
Small 2 stroke engine has 2 piston rings.(both compression rings)
Four stroke engines have an extra ring called oil ring.

Gudgeon pin (or wrist pin or piston pin)

Connecting Rod, Crank and crank shaft :

The crankshaft converts the reciprocating motion of piston to rotary motion by the
movement of piston up and down with connecting rod.
Cranks case :
The main body of engine to which the cylinders are attached and which contains the
crankshaft and its bearings.
Fly wheel :
A flywheel is secured on the cranks shaft. It is made up of steel or cast iron disc.
It stores energy required to rotate the shaft during preparatory strokes and provides
uniform crankshaft rotation.
Governor :
Due to increase of load the supply of fuel also increased and when load is reduced the fuel
supply reduces, this is controlled by the governor.
Valve and valve operating mechanisms :
The inlet and exhaust of IC engines are controlled by poppet valves. These valves are fixed
strongly by springs. As the valve usually open the pressure in cylinder helps to keep
them closed.

MPG Miles per gallon & 1 gallon is 3.78 litres

ADVANTAGES OF 2 STROKE OVER 4 STROKE :

ADVANTAGES OF 2 STROKE OVER 4 STROKE :

WHAT IS VVT ?

Variable Valve Timing (VVT) ,is a generic term for an automobile piston engine technology

VVT allows the lift or duration or timing (some or all) of the intake or exhaust valves (or
both) to be changed while the engine is in operation

Two stroke engines use a power valve system to get similar results to VVT.

WHAT IS VVT-i

The VVT-i system is designed to control the intake camshaft with in a range of 50(of
Crankshaft Angle ) to provide valve timing i.e. optimally suited to the engine condition
.This improves the torque in all the speed ranges as well as fuel economy ,and reducing
exhaust emissions.

CONSTRUCTION
The Variable Valve Timing (VVT) system includes
ECM (Electronic Control Monitor)
OCV (Oil control valve)
VVT controller
The ECM sends a target duty-cycle control signal to the OCV. This control signal
regulates the oil pressure supplied to the VVT controller.
Camshaft timing control is performed according to engine operating conditions
such as the intake air volume, throttle valve position and engine coolant
temperature.
The ECM controls the OCV, based on the signals transmitted by several sensors.
The VVT controller regulates the intake camshaft angle using oil pressure through
the OCV.
As a result, the relative positions of the camshaft and crankshaft are optimized,
the engine torque and fuel economy improve, and the exhaust emissions
decrease under overall driving conditions.

OPERATION

The camshaft timing oil control valve selects the path according to the advance, retard or
hold signal from the ECM.The VVT-i controller rotates the intake camshaft in the timing
advance or retard position or holds it according to the position where the oil pressure is
applied.

ADVANTAGES of vvt-i

Improved torque & output

Battery & fuel economy

Reduced nitrogen oxide & hydrocarbon emissions

VALVE TIMING AND PORT TIMING DIAGRAMS

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF 4 STROKE PETROL ENGINE

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF 4 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE :

VARIABLE VALVE TIMING (VVT) :

The IC engines, VVT is the process of altering the timing of a valve lift event, and is often
used to improve performance, fuel economy or emissions.
Increasing strict emission regulations are causing many automotive manufacturers to use
VVT systems.

Different methods of VVT :

1. Cam changing VVT

2. Cam phasing VVT:

3. Cam changing and cam phasing VVT :

Rovers unique VVC system :

Cam types
y
y

Wedge cam

Plate cam

y
y
Barrel cam

Face cam