Thermal 5

ThermalInfraredRemoteSensing
SelectedApplications
SelectedApplications
ofThermalInfrared
ofThermalInfrared
RemoteSensing
RemoteSensing
NighttimeThermalInfraredImageryofanAirport
NighttimeThermalInfraredImageryofanAirport
Thermalinfraredenergy
Thermalinfraredenergyisemittedfromallobjectsthathavea
isemittedfromallobjectsthathavea
temperaturegreaterthanabsolutezero.Therefore,allthefeatureswe
temperaturegreaterthanabsolutezero.Therefore,allthefeatureswe
encounterinthelandscapeonatypicalday(Sun,vegetation,soil,rocks,
encounterinthelandscapeonatypicalday(Sun,vegetation,soil,rocks,
water,andevenpeople)
water,andevenpeople)emit
emitthermalinfraredelectromagneticradiation.
thermalinfraredelectromagneticradiation.
Humanssensethermalenergyprimarilythroughthesenseoftouch.Our
Humanssensethermalenergyprimarilythroughthesenseoftouch.Our
eyescannotdetectdifferencesinthermalinfraredenergybecausetheyare
eyescannotdetectdifferencesinthermalinfraredenergybecausetheyare
primarilysensitivetoshortwavelengthvisiblelightfrom0.4
primarilysensitivetoshortwavelengthvisiblelightfrom0.4mto0.7
mto0.7
m.Oureyesarenotsensitivetothe
m.Oureyesarenotsensitivetothereflectiveinfrared(0.73.0
reflectiveinfrared(0.73.0m)
m)or
or
thermalinfraredenergy(3.014
thermalinfraredenergy(3.014m)
m).Fortunately,engineershave
.Fortunately,engineershave
developed
developeddetectors
detectorsthataresensitivetothermalinfraredradiation.These
thataresensitivetothermalinfraredradiation.These
thermalinfraredsensorsallowhumanstosenseapreviously
thermalinfraredsensorsallowhumanstosenseapreviouslyinvisible
invisible
worldofinformation
worldofinformationastheymonitorthe
astheymonitorthethermalcharacteristicsofthe
thermalcharacteristicsofthe
landscape.
landscape.
AtmosphericWindowsintheElectromagneticSpectrum
FundamentalPropertiesof
FundamentalPropertiesof
ElectromagneticRadiation
ElectromagneticRadiation
Thethreebasicwaysinwhichenergycanbetransferred:
Thethreebasicwaysinwhichenergycanbetransferred:
Conduction
Conductionoccurswhenonebody(moleculeoratom)transfersits
occurswhenonebody(moleculeoratom)transfersits
kineticenergytoanotherbycollidingwithit.Thisishowapanisheated
kineticenergytoanotherbycollidingwithit.Thisishowapanisheated
onastove.
onastove.
In
Inconvection
convection,thekineticenergyofbodiesistransferredfromoneplace
,thekineticenergyofbodiesistransferredfromoneplace
toanotherbyphysicallymovingthebodies.Anexampleisthe
toanotherbyphysicallymovingthebodies.Anexampleisthe
convectionalheatingofairintheatmosphereintheearlyafternoon.
convectionalheatingofairintheatmosphereintheearlyafternoon.
Thetransferofenergyby
Thetransferofenergybyelectromagneticradiation
electromagneticradiationisofprimaryinterest
isofprimaryinterest
toremotesensingbecauseitistheonlyformofenergytransferthatcan
toremotesensingbecauseitistheonlyformofenergytransferthatcan
takeplaceinavacuumsuchastheregionbetweentheSunandtheEarth.
takeplaceinavacuumsuchastheregionbetweentheSunandtheEarth.
MethodsofHeatTransfer
MethodsofHeatTransfer
Convection
Convection
Pulse
Pulse
of
of
warm
warm
air
air
Conduction
Conduction
Pan
Pan
incontact
incontact
withburner
withburner
a.
a.
Terrain
Terrain
b.
b.
Radiation
Radiation
Sun
Sun
c.c.
Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic
wave
wave
Earth
Earth
HistoryofThermalInfraredRemoteSensing
Theastronomer
TheastronomerSirFrederickWilliamHerschel
SirFrederickWilliamHerschel(17381822)discovered
(17381822)discovered
theinfraredportionoftheelectromagneticspectrumin1800describedin
theinfraredportionoftheelectromagneticspectrumin1800describedin
hisfamouspaperInvestigationsofthePowersofthePrismaticColours
hisfamouspaperInvestigationsofthePowersofthePrismaticColours
toHeatandIlluminateObjects:withRemarks.
toHeatandIlluminateObjects:withRemarks.
In1879,
In1879,S.P.Langley
S.P.Langleybeganaresearchprogramtofindasuperior
beganaresearchprogramtofindasuperior
radiationdetector.Oneyearlaterheinventedthebolometerthatwasable
radiationdetector.Oneyearlaterheinventedthebolometerthatwasable
toobtainmeasurabletemperaturevariationsof1/10,000C.
toobtainmeasurabletemperaturevariationsof1/10,000C.
InWorldWarI,
InWorldWarI,S.O.Hoffman
S.O.Hoffmancoulddetectmenat120mandaircraft.
coulddetectmenat120mandaircraft.
Inthe1930s,Germanydevelopedthe
Inthe1930s,GermanydevelopedtheKielsystem
Kielsystemfordiscriminating
fordiscriminating
betweenbombersandnightfighters.
betweenbombersandnightfighters.
Thesinglemostimportantdevelopmentininfraredtechnologywas
Thesinglemostimportantdevelopmentininfraredtechnologywas
thedevelopmentofthe
thedevelopmentofthedetectorelement
detectorelementbynationsatwarduring
bynationsatwarduring
WorldWarII.Earlyinfrareddetectorswere
WorldWarII.Earlyinfrareddetectorswereleadsaltphotodetectors
leadsaltphotodetectors..
Nowwehaveveryfastdetectorsconsistingof
Nowwehaveveryfastdetectorsconsistingofmercurydoped
mercurydoped
germanium
germanium(Ge:Hg),
(Ge:Hg),indiumantimonide
indiumantimonide(InSb)andothersubstances
(InSb)andothersubstances
thatareveryresponsivetoinfraredradiation.Wealsohavecomputers
thatareveryresponsivetoinfraredradiation.Wealsohavecomputers
torapidlyprocessanddisplaythethermalradiometricmeasurements.
torapidlyprocessanddisplaythethermalradiometricmeasurements.
In1968,thegovernment
In1968,thegovernmentdeclassified
declassifiedthermalinfraredremotesensing
thermalinfraredremotesensing
systemsthatdidnotexceedacertainspatialresolutionandtemperature
systemsthatdidnotexceedacertainspatialresolutionandtemperature
sensitivity.
sensitivity.
Thefirstdeclassifiedsatelliteremotesensordatawerecollectedbythe
Thefirstdeclassifiedsatelliteremotesensordatawerecollectedbythe
U.S.TelevisionIROperationalSatellite
U.S.TelevisionIROperationalSatellite((TIROS
TIROS)launchedin1960.The
)launchedin1960.The
coarseresolutionthermalinfrareddatawereidealformonitoringregional
coarseresolutionthermalinfrareddatawereidealformonitoringregional
cloudpatternsandfrontalmovement.
cloudpatternsandfrontalmovement.
NASAlaunchedthe
NASAlaunchedtheHeatCapacityMappingMission
HeatCapacityMappingMission((HCCM
HCCM)onApril
)onApril
26,1978thatobtained600x600mspatialresolutionthermalinfrared
26,1978thatobtained600x600mspatialresolutionthermalinfrared
data(10.512.6
data(10.512.6m)bothday(1:30pm)andnight(2:30am).Thiswas
m)bothday(1:30pm)andnight(2:30am).Thiswas
oneofthefirstscientificallyoriented(geology)thermalinfraredsystems.
oneofthefirstscientificallyoriented(geology)thermalinfraredsystems.
NASAsNimbus7launchedonOctober23,1978hada
NASAsNimbus7launchedonOctober23,1978hadaCoastalZone
CoastalZone
ColorScanner
ColorScanner((CZCS
CZCS)thatincludedathermalinfraredsensorfor
)thatincludedathermalinfraredsensorfor
monitoringseasurfacetemperature.
monitoringseasurfacetemperature.
In1980,NASAandtheJetPropulsionLaboratorydevelopedthe
In1980,NASAandtheJetPropulsionLaboratorydevelopedthe
thermalinfraredmultispectralscanner
thermalinfraredmultispectralscanner((TIMS
TIMS)thatacquiresthermal
)thatacquiresthermal
infraredenergyinsixbandsatwavelengthintervalsof<1.0
infraredenergyinsixbandsatwavelengthintervalsof<1.0m.
m.
LandsatThematicMapper4and5
LandsatThematicMapper4and5sensorswerelaunchedonJuly16,
sensorswerelaunchedonJuly16,
1982andMarch1,1984,respectively,andcollected120x120m
1982andMarch1,1984,respectively,andcollected120x120m
thermalinfrareddata(10.412.5
thermalinfrareddata(10.412.5m)alongwithtwobandsofmiddle
m)alongwithtwobandsofmiddle
infrareddata.
infrareddata.
Today,the
Today,theNOAAGeostationaryOperationalEnvironmentalSatellite
NOAAGeostationaryOperationalEnvironmentalSatellite
((GOES
GOES)collectsthermalinfrareddataataspatialresolutionof8x8
)collectsthermalinfrareddataataspatialresolutionof8x8
kmforweatherprediction.Fulldiskimagesoftheearthareobtained
kmforweatherprediction.Fulldiskimagesoftheearthareobtained
every30minutesbothdayandnightbythethermalinfraredsensor.
every30minutesbothdayandnightbythethermalinfraredsensor.
The
TheNOAAAdvancedVeryHighResolutionRadiometer
NOAAAdvancedVeryHighResolutionRadiometer
((AVHRR
AVHRR)collectsthermalinfraredlocalareacoverage(LAC)
)collectsthermalinfraredlocalareacoverage(LAC)
dataat1.1x1.1kmandglobalareacoverage(GAC)at4x4
dataat1.1x1.1kmandglobalareacoverage(GAC)at4x4
km.Theroutinecollectionofthermalinfrareddataareapart
km.Theroutinecollectionofthermalinfrareddataareapart
ofeachpersonsdailylifeaswewatchthenightlyweather
ofeachpersonsdailylifeaswewatchthenightlyweather
report.
report.
ThermalInfraredRadiationPrinciples
ThermalInfraredRadiationPrinciples
Ananalyst
Ananalystcannotinterpretathermalinfraredimageasifitwerean
cannotinterpretathermalinfraredimageasifitwerean
aerialphotograph
aerialphotographoranormalimageproducedbyamultispectral
oranormalimageproducedbyamultispectral
scannerorchargecoupleddevice.
scannerorchargecoupleddevice.
Rather,theimageanalystmust
Rather,theimageanalystmustthink
thinkthermally
thermally..
TheanalystmustunderstandhowenergyfromtheSunorfromthe
TheanalystmustunderstandhowenergyfromtheSunorfromthe
Earth
Earthinteracts
interactswiththevariousterraincomponentsandhowthe
withthevariousterraincomponentsandhowthe
detectorsfunctionastheyrecordtheterrains
detectorsfunctionastheyrecordtheterrainsemitted
emittedthermalinfrared
thermalinfrared
electromagneticradiation.Finally,theanalystmustunderstandhow
electromagneticradiation.Finally,theanalystmustunderstandhow
boththesensorsystemitselfandtheterraincanintroduce
boththesensorsystemitselfandtheterraincanintroducenoise
noiseinto
into
thethermalinfraredimagethatmightmakethedatalessusefulorlead
thethermalinfraredimagethatmightmakethedatalessusefulorlead
toincorrectimageinterpretation.
toincorrectimageinterpretation.
highdensity
highdensity
magnetic
magnetic
tape
tape
amplifier
amplifier
modulated
modulated
light
light
source
source
recorder
recorder
mirror
mirror
optional
optional
film
film
recorder
recorder
H
H
hot
hot
calibration
calibration
source
source
dewarof
dewarof
liquid
liquid
nitrogen
nitrogen
detector
detector
scan
scan
mirror
mirror
cold
cold
source
source
radiantflux,
radiantflux,
withinthe
withinthe
instantaneousfield
instantaneousfield
ofview,
ofview,
D
D
focusing
focusing
mirrors
mirrors
total
total
angular
angular
fieldof
fieldof
view
view
Characteristicsofa
Characteristicsofa
ThermalInfrared
ThermalInfrared
AirborneAcross
AirborneAcross
trackScanner
trackScanner
PredawnThermalInfraredImageofEffluentEnteringtheSavannahRiverSwampSystem
PredawnThermalInfraredImageofEffluentEnteringtheSavannahRiverSwampSystem
Savannah
River
Savannah
River
2xreduction
2xreduction
March31,1981
March31,1981
4:28am;3x3m
4:28am;3x3m
PredawnThermalInfraredImageofa
PredawnThermalInfraredImageofa
ResidentialSubdivisioninForthWorth,Texas
ResidentialSubdivisioninForthWorth,Texas
hh
ee
ff
gg
aa
bb
dd
cc
250mAGL
250mAGL
1mradIFOV
1mradIFOV
6:45am
6:45am
Jan10,1980
Jan10,1980
0.25x0.25m
0.25x0.25m
KineticHeat,Temperature,Radiant
EnergyandRadiantFlux
The
Theenergyofparticlesofmatterinrandommotion
energyofparticlesofmatterinrandommotioniscalled
iscalledkineticheat
kineticheat
(alsoreferredtoasinternal,real,ortrueheat).Allobjectshavinga
(alsoreferredtoasinternal,real,ortrueheat).Allobjectshavinga
temperatureaboveabsolutezero(0K;273.16C;and459.69F)
temperatureaboveabsolutezero(0K;273.16C;and459.69F)
exhibitthisrandommotion.Whentheseparticlescollidetheychange
exhibitthisrandommotion.Whentheseparticlescollidetheychange
theirenergystateandemitelectromagneticradiationaspreviously
theirenergystateandemitelectromagneticradiationaspreviously
discussed.
discussed.
The
Theamountofheat
amountofheatcanbemeasuredin
canbemeasuredincalories
calories(theamountofheat
(theamountofheat
requiredtoraisethetemperatureof1gofwater1C).Wecanmeasure
requiredtoraisethetemperatureof1gofwater1C).Wecanmeasure
the
thetruekinetictemperature
truekinetictemperature((TTkinkin)orconcentrationofthisheatusinga
)orconcentrationofthisheatusinga
thermometer
thermometer.Weperformthis
.Weperformthisinsitu
insitu(inplace)temperaturemeasurement
(inplace)temperaturemeasurement
whenweareill.Wecanalsomeasurethetruekineticinternaltemperature
whenweareill.Wecanalsomeasurethetruekineticinternaltemperature
ofsoilorwaterbyphysicallytouchingthemwithathermometer.
ofsoilorwaterbyphysicallytouchingthemwithathermometer.
Fortunatelyforus,anobjects
Fortunatelyforus,anobjectsinternalkineticheat
internalkineticheatisalsoconvertedto
isalsoconvertedto
radiantenergy
radiantenergy(oftencalledexternalorapparentenergy).The
(oftencalledexternalorapparentenergy).The
electromagneticradiationexitinganobjectiscalled
electromagneticradiationexitinganobjectiscalledradiantflux
radiantflux((
))
andismeasuredinwatts.Theconcentrationoftheamountofradiant
andismeasuredinwatts.Theconcentrationoftheamountofradiant
flux
).
fluxexiting
exiting((emitted
emittedfrom)anobjectisits
from)anobjectisitsradianttemperature
radianttemperature((TTrad
rad).
Thereisusuallya
Thereisusuallyahighpositivecorrelation
highpositivecorrelationbetweenthetruekinetic
betweenthetruekinetic
temperatureofanobject(
temperatureofanobject(TTkinkin)andtheamountofradiantfluxradiated
)andtheamountofradiantfluxradiated
fromtheobject(
).Therefore,wecanutilizeradiometersplacedsome
fromtheobject(TTrad
rad).Therefore,wecanutilizeradiometersplacedsome
distancefromtheobjecttomeasureitsradianttemperaturewhich
distancefromtheobjecttomeasureitsradianttemperaturewhich
hopefullycorrelateswellwiththeobjectstruekinetictemperature.
hopefullycorrelateswellwiththeobjectstruekinetictemperature.This
This
isthebasisofthermalinfraredremotesensing
isthebasisofthermalinfraredremotesensing..
KineticHeat,Temperature,
KineticHeat,Temperature,
RadiantEnergyandRadiantFlux
RadiantEnergyandRadiantFlux
Unfortunately,therelationshipis
Unfortunately,therelationshipisnot
notperfect
perfect,withtheremote
,withtheremote
measurementofthe
measurementoftheradianttemperaturealwaysbeingslightly
radianttemperaturealwaysbeingslightly
lessthanthetruekinetictemperatureoftheobject
lessthanthetruekinetictemperatureoftheobject.Thisisdue
.Thisisdue
toathermalpropertycalled
toathermalpropertycalledemissivity
emissivity..
ThermalInfraredAtmosphericWindows
ThermalInfraredAtmosphericWindows
Beyondthevisibleregionoftheelectromagneticspectrum,we
Beyondthevisibleregionoftheelectromagneticspectrum,we
encounterthe
encounterthereflectiveinfraredregion
reflectiveinfraredregionfrom
from0.73.0
0.73.0m
mandthe
andthe
thermalinfraredregion
thermalinfraredregionfrom
from314
314m
m..
Theonlyreasonwecanuseremotesensingdevicestodetectinfrared
Theonlyreasonwecanuseremotesensingdevicestodetectinfrared
energyintheseregionsisbecausetheatmosphereallowsaportionof
energyintheseregionsisbecausetheatmosphereallowsaportionof
theinfraredenergytobetransmittedfromtheterraintothedetectors.
theinfraredenergytobetransmittedfromtheterraintothedetectors.
Regionsthatpassenergyarecalled
Regionsthatpassenergyarecalledatmosphericwindows
atmosphericwindows.Regions
.Regions
thatabsorbmostoftheinfraredenergyarecalled
thatabsorbmostoftheinfraredenergyarecalledabsorptionbands
absorptionbands..
Watervapor(H
Watervapor(H22O),carbondioxide(CO
O),carbondioxide(CO22),andozone(O
),andozone(O33)are
)are
responsibleformostoftheabsorption.Forexample,atmosphericwater
responsibleformostoftheabsorption.Forexample,atmosphericwater
vapor(H
vapor(H22O)absorbsmostoftheenergyexitingtheterraininthe
O)absorbsmostoftheenergyexitingtheterraininthe
regionfrom5to7
regionfrom5to7mmakingitalmostuselessforremotesensing.
mmakingitalmostuselessforremotesensing.
ReflectiveInfraredDetectors
ReflectiveInfraredDetectors
Remotesensorscanbeengineeredtobesensitivetotheinfrared
Remotesensorscanbeengineeredtobesensitivetotheinfrared
energypresentwithinthe
energypresentwithinthereflectiveinfrared
reflectiveinfraredatmosphericwindows.
atmosphericwindows.
Film
Filmemulsions
emulsionscanbemadesensitivetoreflectedinfraredenergyin
canbemadesensitivetoreflectedinfraredenergyin
thewindowfrom
thewindowfrom0.7.09
0.7.09m
m.Forexample,Kodaks2443color
.Forexample,Kodaks2443color
infraredfilmworkswithinthisphotographicinfraredregionandisideal
infraredfilmworkswithinthisphotographicinfraredregionandisideal
formonitoringvegetationandwater.
formonitoringvegetationandwater.
Electroopticaldetectorson
ElectroopticaldetectorsonLandsatThematicMapper4and5
LandsatThematicMapper4and5are
are
sensitivetothereflectiveinfraredwindowsfrom
sensitivetothereflectiveinfraredwindowsfrom1.551.75
1.551.75m
m(TM
(TM
band5)and
band5)and2.082.35
2.082.35m
m(TMband7).
(TMband7).
ThermalInfraredDetectors
Electronicdetectors
Electronicdetectorscanalsobemadesensitivetophotonsof
canalsobemadesensitivetophotonsofthermal
thermal
infraredradiantenergy
infraredradiantenergyexitingtheterraininthetwoprimarythermal
exitingtheterraininthetwoprimarythermal
infraredwindows:
infraredwindows:35
35m
mand
and814
814m
m.Suborbitalthermalinfrared
.Suborbitalthermalinfrared
remotesensingsystemsutilizethesespectralbands.
remotesensingsystemsutilizethesespectralbands.
TheEarthsozone(O
TheEarthsozone(O33)layerabsorbsmuchofthethermalenergy
)layerabsorbsmuchofthethermalenergy
exitingtheterraininanabsorptionbandfromapproximately910
exitingtheterraininanabsorptionbandfromapproximately910m.
m.
Therefore,
Therefore,satellitethermalinfraredremotesensingsystems
satellitethermalinfraredremotesensingsystemsusually
usually
onlyrecorddataintheregionfrom
onlyrecorddataintheregionfrom10.512.5
10.512.5m
mtoavoidthe
toavoidthe
absorptionband.
absorptionband.
VerticalAerialPhotograph
science
science
buildings
buildings
library
library
dorms
dorms
parking
parking
a.
a.
PredawnThermalInfraredImage
DaytimeOpticaland
DaytimeOpticaland
NighttimeThermal
NighttimeThermal
InfraredImageryofthe
InfraredImageryofthe
UniversityofSouth
UniversityofSouth
CarolinaCampus
CarolinaCampus
soccerfield
soccerfield
onedimensional
onedimensional
relief
relief
displacement
displacement
steam
steam
lines
lines
manhole
manhole
cover
cover
line-of-flight
line-of-flight
steam
steam
plant
plant
2xreduction
b.
b.
April26,1981
April
April26,1981
April
4:56am
4:56am
1x1m
1x1m
ThermalRadiationLaws
ThermalRadiationLaws
A
Ablackbody
blackbodyisatheoreticalconstructthatabsorbsalltheradiant
isatheoreticalconstructthatabsorbsalltheradiant
energystrikingitandradiatesenergyatthemaximumpossiblerateper
energystrikingitandradiatesenergyatthemaximumpossiblerateper
unitareaateachwavelengthforanygiventemperature.
unitareaateachwavelengthforanygiventemperature.
Noobjectsinnaturearetrueblackbodies
Noobjectsinnaturearetrueblackbodies,however,wemaythinkof
,however,wemaythinkof
theSunasapproximatinga6,000KblackbodyandtheEarthasa300
theSunasapproximatinga6,000KblackbodyandtheEarthasa300
Kblackbody.
Kblackbody.Ifwepointedasensoratablackbodywewouldbeable
Ifwepointedasensoratablackbodywewouldbeable
torecordquantitativeinformationaboutthetotalamountofradiant
torecordquantitativeinformationaboutthetotalamountofradiant
energyinspecificwavelengthsexitingtheobjectandthedominant
energyinspecificwavelengthsexitingtheobjectandthedominant
wavelengthoftheobject.
wavelengthoftheobject.Inordertodothis,weutilizetwoimportant
Inordertodothis,weutilizetwoimportant
physicallaws:theStefanBoltzmannlawandWeinsdisplacementlaw.
physicallaws:theStefanBoltzmannlawandWeinsdisplacementlaw.
StephenBoltzmannLaw
StephenBoltzmannLaw
2
Thetotalspectralradiantfluxexitance(
Thetotalspectralradiantfluxexitance(FFbb)measuredinwattsm
)measuredinwattsm2leavinga
leavinga
blackbody
blackbodyisproportionaltothefourthpowerofitstemperature(
isproportionaltothefourthpowerofitstemperature(TT).This
).This
isthe
istheStefanBoltzmannlaw
StefanBoltzmannlawandisexpressedas:
andisexpressedas:
44
F
=
kT
Fbb=kT
where
wherekkistheStefanBoltzmannconstantequaling2898mmK,and
istheStefanBoltzmannconstantequaling2898mmK,andTTis
is
temperatureindegreesKelvin.
temperatureindegreesKelvin.Thetotalradiantexitanceistheintegration
Thetotalradiantexitanceistheintegration
ofalltheareaundertheblackbodyradiationcurve.
ofalltheareaundertheblackbodyradiationcurve.
TheSunproducesmorespectralradiantexitance(F
TheSunproducesmorespectralradiantexitance(Fbb)at6,000Kthanthe
)at6,000Kthanthe
Earthat300K.Asthetemperatureincreases,thetotalamountofradiant
Earthat300K.Asthetemperatureincreases,thetotalamountofradiant
2
energymeasuredinwattsperm
energymeasuredinwattsperm2(theareaunderthecurve)increasesand
(theareaunderthecurve)increasesand
theradiantenergypeakshiftstoshorterwavelengths.
theradiantenergypeakshiftstoshorterwavelengths.
Blackbody
Radiation
BlackbodyRadiation
Radiation
Radiation
CurvesforSeveral
CurvesforSeveral
Objectsincludingthe
Objectsincludingthe
SunandEarth
SunandEarth
WeinsDisplacementLaw
Therelationshipbetweenthetruetemperatureofablackbody(
Therelationshipbetweenthetruetemperatureofablackbody(TT)in
)in
degreesKelvinandits
degreesKelvinanditspeakspectralexitance
peakspectralexitanceor
ordominantwavelength
dominantwavelength
((max
)isdescribedbyWeinsdisplacementlaw:
max)isdescribedbyWeinsdisplacementlaw:
max
=k=2898mK
max=k=2898mK
TT
TT
where
wherekkisaconstantequaling2898
isaconstantequaling2898mK.
mK.
Forexample,theaveragetemperatureofthe
Forexample,theaveragetemperatureoftheEarth
Earthis300K
is300K
(80F).
(80F).
Wecomputethe
WecomputetheEarthsdominantwavelength
Earthsdominantwavelengthas:
as:
=
=2898
2898mK
mK
max
max
TT
max=
2898mK=9.67m
max=2898mK=9.67m
300K
300K
The
Thedominantwavelength
dominantwavelengthprovidesvaluableinformationaboutwhich
providesvaluableinformationaboutwhich
partofthethermalspectrumwemightwanttosensein.Forexample,if
partofthethermalspectrumwemightwanttosensein.Forexample,if
wearelookingfor
wearelookingfor800Kforestfires
800Kforestfiresthathaveadominantwavelength
thathaveadominantwavelength
ofapproximately
ofapproximately3.62
3.62m
mthenthemostappropriateremotesensing
thenthemostappropriateremotesensing
systemmightbea
systemmightbea35
35m
mthermalinfrareddetector.
thermalinfrareddetector.
Ifweareinterestedin
Ifweareinterestedinsoil,water,androckwithambient
soil,water,androckwithambient
temperaturesontheearthssurfaceof300K
temperaturesontheearthssurfaceof300Kandadominant
andadominant
wavelengthof
wavelengthof9.66
9.66m
m,thenathermalinfrareddetectoroperatingin
,thenathermalinfrareddetectoroperatingin
the
the814
814m
mregionmightbemostappropriate.
regionmightbemostappropriate.
Emissivity
Emissivity
Theworldisnotcomposedofradiatingblackbodies.Ratheritis
Theworldisnotcomposedofradiatingblackbodies.Ratheritis
composedof
composedofselectivelyradiatingbodies
selectivelyradiatingbodiessuchasrocks,soil,andwater
suchasrocks,soil,andwater
thatemitonlyafractionoftheenergyemittedfromablackbodyatthe
thatemitonlyafractionoftheenergyemittedfromablackbodyatthe
sametemperature.
sametemperature.Emissivity
Emissivity,,,istheratiobetweentheradiantflux
,istheratiobetweentheradiantflux
exitinga
blackbodyatthe
exitingarealworldselectiveradiatingbody
realworldselectiveradiatingbody((FFr)anda
r)andablackbodyatthe
sametemperature
sametemperature((FFbb):):
F
Frr
=______
=______
F
Fbb
Emissivity
Emissivity
Allselectivelyradiatingbodieshaveemissivitiesrangingfrom0to<1
Allselectivelyradiatingbodieshaveemissivitiesrangingfrom0to<1
thatfluctuatedependinguponthewavelengthsofenergybeing
thatfluctuatedependinguponthewavelengthsofenergybeing
considered.Agraybodyoutputsaconstantemissivitythatislessthan
considered.Agraybodyoutputsaconstantemissivitythatislessthan
oneatallwavelengths.
oneatallwavelengths.
Somematerialslikedistilledwaterhaveemissivitiesclosetoone
Somematerialslikedistilledwaterhaveemissivitiesclosetoone
(0.99)overthewavelengthintervalfrom814m.Otherssuchas
(0.99)overthewavelengthintervalfrom814m.Otherssuchas
polishedaluminum(0.08)andstainlesssteel(0.16)haveverylow
polishedaluminum(0.08)andstainlesssteel(0.16)haveverylow
emissivities.
emissivities.
blackbody
blackbody
SpectralEmissivity,
SpectralEmissivity,
SpectralEmissivity,
1
1
SpectralRadiantExitance
Sp
ectralRadiantExitance
SpectralRadiantExitance
2
1
2 m
WWm
m
um
2
11
Wm
m
a.a.
b.b.
selectiveradiator
selectiveradiator
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.1
Spectralemissivityofa
Spectralemissivityofa
blackbody,agraybody,
blackbody,agraybody,
andahypothetical
andahypothetical
selectiveradiator
selectiveradiator
graybody
graybody
0.1
0.1
1
1
10
10
Wavelength,m
Wavelength,m
100
100
1088
10
1066
10
6,000K
6,000K
blackbody
blackbody
=1.0
=1.0
6,000K
6,000K
graybody
graybody
=0.1
=0.1
1044
10
1022
10
1000
10
0.1
0.1
6,000K
6,000K
selectiveradiator
selectiveradiator
2xreduction
2xreduction
1
1
10
10
Wavelength,m
Wavelength,m
100
100
Spectralradiantexitance
Spectralradiantexitance
distributionofthe
distributionofthe
blackbody,graybody,
blackbody,graybody,
andhypothetical
andhypothetical
selectiveradiator
selectiveradiator
Emissivity
Emissivity
Tworockslyingnexttooneanotheronthegroundcouldhavethesame
Tworockslyingnexttooneanotheronthegroundcouldhavethesame
truekinetictemperaturebuthavedifferentapparenttemperatureswhen
truekinetictemperaturebuthavedifferentapparenttemperatureswhen
sensedbyathermalradiometersimplybecausetheiremissivitiesare
sensedbyathermalradiometersimplybecausetheiremissivitiesare
different.Theemissivityofanobjectmaybeinfluencedbyanumber
different.Theemissivityofanobjectmaybeinfluencedbyanumber
factors,including:
factors,including:
colordarkercoloredobjectsareusuallybetterabsorbersand
colordarkercoloredobjectsareusuallybetterabsorbersand
emitters(i.e.theyhaveahigheremissivity)thanlightercoloredobjects
emitters(i.e.theyhaveahigheremissivity)thanlightercoloredobjects
whichtendtoreflectmoreoftheincidentenergy.
whichtendtoreflectmoreoftheincidentenergy.
surfaceroughnessthegreaterthesurfaceroughnessofanobject
surfaceroughnessthegreaterthesurfaceroughnessofanobject
relativetothesizeoftheincidentwavelength,thegreaterthesurface
relativetothesizeoftheincidentwavelength,thegreaterthesurface
areaoftheobjectandpotentialforabsorptionandreemissionof
areaoftheobjectandpotentialforabsorptionandreemissionof
energy.
energy.
Emissivity
Emissivity
moisturecontentthemoremoistureanobjectcontains,thegreaterits
moisturecontentthemoremoistureanobjectcontains,thegreaterits
abilitytoabsorbenergyandbecomeagoodemitter.Wetsoilparticles
abilitytoabsorbenergyandbecomeagoodemitter.Wetsoilparticles
haveahighemissivitysimilartowater.
haveahighemissivitysimilartowater.
compactionthedegreeofsoilcompactioncaneffectemissivity.
compactionthedegreeofsoilcompactioncaneffectemissivity.
fieldofviewtheemissivityofasingleleafmeasuredwithavery
fieldofviewtheemissivityofasingleleafmeasuredwithavery
highresolutionthermalradiometerwillhaveadifferentemissivitythan
highresolutionthermalradiometerwillhaveadifferentemissivitythan
anentiretreecrownviewedusingacoarsespatialresolutionradiometer.
anentiretreecrownviewedusingacoarsespatialresolutionradiometer.
wavelengththeemissivityofanobjectisgenerallyconsideredtobe
wavelengththeemissivityofanobjectisgenerallyconsideredtobe
wavelengthdependent.Forexample,whiletheemissivityofanobjectis
wavelengthdependent.Forexample,whiletheemissivityofanobjectis
oftenconsideredtobeconstantthroughoutthe814mmregion,its
oftenconsideredtobeconstantthroughoutthe814mmregion,its
emissivityinthe35mmregionmaybedifferent.
emissivityinthe35mmregionmaybedifferent.
Emissivity
Emissivity
viewingangletheemissivityofanobjectcanvarywithsensor
viewingangletheemissivityofanobjectcanvarywithsensor
viewingangle.
viewingangle.
Wemusttakeintoaccountanobjectsemissivitywhenweuseour
Wemusttakeintoaccountanobjectsemissivitywhenweuseour
remoteradianttemperaturemeasurementtomeasuretheobjectstrue
remoteradianttemperaturemeasurementtomeasuretheobjectstrue
kinetictemperature.ThisisdonebyapplyingKirchoffsradiationlaw.
kinetictemperature.ThisisdonebyapplyingKirchoffsradiationlaw.
KirchoffsRadiationLaw
Rememberthattheterraininterceptsincident(incoming)radiantflux
Rememberthattheterraininterceptsincident(incoming)radiantflux
(
(i).Thisincidentenergyinteractswithterrainmaterials.Theamount
i).Thisincidentenergyinteractswithterrainmaterials.Theamount
ofradiantfluxreflectedfromthesurface(
ofradiantfluxreflectedfromthesurface(r),theamountofradiant
r),theamountofradiant
fluxabsorbedbythesurface(
fluxabsorbedbythesurface(aa),andtheamountofradiantflux
),andtheamountofradiantflux
transmittedthroughthesurface(
transmittedthroughthesurface(t)canbecarefullymeasuredaswe
t)canbecarefullymeasuredaswe
applytheprincipleofconservationofenergyandattempttokeeptrack
applytheprincipleofconservationofenergyandattempttokeeptrack
ofwhathappenstoalltheincidentenergy.Thegeneralequationforthe
ofwhathappenstoalltheincidentenergy.Thegeneralequationforthe
interactionofspectral()radiantfluxwiththeterrainis:
interactionofspectral()radiantfluxwiththeterrainis:
ii=
=rr+
++
+
Dividingeachofthevariablesbytheoriginalincidentradiantflux:
Dividingeachofthevariablesbytheoriginalincidentradiantflux:
/ )+( /
ii/
/ii=(
=(rr/
/ii)+(
)+(
/ii))
/ii)+(
allowsustorewritetheinitialequationas:
allowsustorewritetheinitialequationas:
=r
=r+
++
+
wherer
whererisspectralhemisphericalreflectancebytheterrain,
isspectralhemisphericalreflectancebytheterrain,is
is
spectralhemisphericalabsorptance,and
spectralhemisphericalabsorptance,andisspectralhemispherical
isspectralhemispherical
transmittance.
transmittance.
The
TheRussianphysicistKirchhoff
RussianphysicistKirchhofffoundthatintheinfraredportionof
foundthatintheinfraredportionof
thespectrumthespectralemissivityofanobjectgenerallyequalsits
thespectrumthespectralemissivityofanobjectgenerallyequalsits
spectralabsorptance,i.e.
spectralabsorptance,i.e.~
~.Thisisoftenphrasedas:
.Thisisoftenphrasedas:
goodabsorbersaregoodemittersand
goodabsorbersaregoodemittersand
goodreflectorsarepooremitters
goodreflectorsarepooremitters..
Also,mostrealworldmaterialsareusuallyopaquetothermalradiation
Also,mostrealworldmaterialsareusuallyopaquetothermalradiation
meaningthatnoradiantfluxexitsfromtheothersideoftheterrain
meaningthatnoradiantfluxexitsfromtheothersideoftheterrain
element.Therefore,wemayassumetransmittance,
element.Therefore,wemayassumetransmittance,=0
=0.Substituting
.Substituting
emissivityforabsorptanceandremovingtransmittancefromthe
emissivityforabsorptanceandremovingtransmittancefromthe
equationyields:
equationyields:
=r
=r+
+
Thissimplerelationshipdescribeswhyobjectsappearastheydoon
Thissimplerelationshipdescribeswhyobjectsappearastheydoon
thermalinfraredimagery.
thermalinfraredimagery.Becausetheterraindoesnotloseany
Becausetheterraindoesnotloseany
incidentenergytotransmittance,alloftheenergyleavingtheobject
incidentenergytotransmittance,alloftheenergyleavingtheobject
mustbeaccountedforbytheinverserelationshipbetweenreflectance
mustbeaccountedforbytheinverserelationshipbetweenreflectance
(r(r)andemissivity(
)andemissivity().
).Ifreflectivityincreasesthenemissivitymust
Ifreflectivityincreasesthenemissivitymust
decrease.Ifemissivityincreasesthenreflectivitymustdecrease.
decrease.Ifemissivityincreasesthenreflectivitymustdecrease.For
For
example,waterabsorbsalmostallincidentenergyandreflectsvery
example,waterabsorbsalmostallincidentenergyandreflectsvery
little.Therefore,waterisaverygoodemitterandhasahighemissivity
little.Therefore,waterisaverygoodemitterandhasahighemissivity
closeto1.Conversely,asheetmetalroofreflectsmostoftheincident
closeto1.Conversely,asheetmetalroofreflectsmostoftheincident
energy,absorbsverylittle,yieldinganemissivitymuchlessthan1.
energy,absorbsverylittle,yieldinganemissivitymuchlessthan1.
Therefore,metalobjectssuchascars,aircraft,andmetalroofsalmost
Therefore,metalobjectssuchascars,aircraft,andmetalroofsalmost
alwayslookverycold(dark)onthermalinfraredimagery.
alwayslookverycold(dark)onthermalinfraredimagery.
Thegoalofthermalinfraredremotesensingistobeabletopointa
Thegoalofthermalinfraredremotesensingistobeabletopointa
radiometeratanobjectandhavetheapparentradianttemperature
radiometeratanobjectandhavetheapparentradianttemperature
recorded(
)equalthetruekinetictemperatureoftheobject(T kin).
recorded(TTrad
).
rad)equalthetruekinetictemperatureoftheobject( Tkin
Unfortunately,theradiantfluxfromarealworldobjectatagiven
Unfortunately,theradiantfluxfromarealworldobjectatagiven
temperatureisnotthesameastheradiantfluxfromablackbodyatthe
temperatureisnotthesameastheradiantfluxfromablackbodyatthe
sametemperaturelargelyduetotheeffectsof
sametemperaturelargelyduetotheeffectsofemissivity
emissivity.Knowingthe
.Knowingthe
emissivitycharacteristicsofanobjectmakesitpossibletomodifythe
emissivitycharacteristicsofanobjectmakesitpossibletomodifythe
StefanBoltzmannlaw(originallyapplicabletoblackbodies)sothatit
StefanBoltzmannlaw(originallyapplicabletoblackbodies)sothatit
pertainstothetotalspectralradiantfluxof
pertainstothetotalspectralradiantfluxofrealworldmaterials
realworldmaterials((FFr):
r):
44
FFr=
kT
=
kT
kin
r
kin
Ittakesintoaccountthe
Ittakesintoaccountthetemperature
temperatureoftheobjectandits
oftheobjectanditsemissivity
emissivityto
to
createamoreaccurateestimateoftheradiantfluxexitinganobject.
createamoreaccurateestimateoftheradiantfluxexitinganobject.
Thermalinfraredremotesensingsystemsgenerallyrecordthe
Thermalinfraredremotesensingsystemsgenerallyrecordthe
apparentradianttemperature,
oftheterrainratherthanthetrue
apparentradianttemperature,TTrad
radoftheterrainratherthanthetrue
kinetictemperature,
kinetictemperature,TTkinkin.Ifweassumethattheincorporationof
.Ifweassumethattheincorporationof
emissivityinthepreviousequationhasimprovedourmeasurementto
emissivityinthepreviousequationhasimprovedourmeasurementto
4
4andweassumethat
thepointthat:
FFr=
kT
thepointthat:
=
kT
kin
andweassumethat
r
kin
44
FFbb=
and
=kT
kTrad
rad and
F
then,
Frr=
=FFb
bthen,
4
4=kT 44
kT
kTrad
rad =kTkin
kin
Therefore,theradianttemperatureofanobjectrecordedbyaremote
Therefore,theradianttemperatureofanobjectrecordedbyaremote
sensorisrelatedtoitstruekinetictemperatureandemissivitybythe
sensorisrelatedtoitstruekinetictemperatureandemissivitybythe
1/4
1/4T
followingrelationship:
=
followingrelationship:TTrad
=
Tkin
rad
kin
ThermalPropertiesofTerrain
Water,rocks,soil,vegetation,theatmosphere,andhumantissueall
Water,rocks,soil,vegetation,theatmosphere,andhumantissueall
havetheabilitytoconductheatdirectlythroughthem(
havetheabilitytoconductheatdirectlythroughthem(thermal
thermal
conductivity
conductivity)ontoanothersurfaceandtostoreheat(
)ontoanothersurfaceandtostoreheat(thermalcapacity
thermalcapacity).
).
Somematerialsrespondtochangesintemperaturemorerapidlyor
Somematerialsrespondtochangesintemperaturemorerapidlyor
slowlythanothers(
slowlythanothers(thermalinertia
thermalinertia).
).
Thermalcapacity
Thermalcapacity((cc)istheabilityofamaterialtostoreheat.Itis
)istheabilityofamaterialtostoreheat.Itis
measuredasthenumberofcaloriesrequiredtoraiseagramofmaterial
measuredasthenumberofcaloriesrequiredtoraiseagramofmaterial
(e.g.water)1C(calg1C1).Waterhasthehighestthermalcapacity
(e.g.water)1C(calg1C1).Waterhasthehighestthermalcapacity
(1.00).Itstoresheatverywellrelativetoalltheothermaterials.
(1.00).Itstoresheatverywellrelativetoalltheothermaterials.
Thermalconductivity
Thermalconductivity((KK)istheratethatheatwillpassthrougha
)istheratethatheatwillpassthrougha
materialandismeasuredasthenumberofcaloriesthatwillpass
materialandismeasuredasthenumberofcaloriesthatwillpass
througha1cmcubeofmaterialin1secondwhentwooppositefaces
througha1cmcubeofmaterialin1secondwhentwooppositefaces
1
1
aremaintainedat1Cdifferenceintemperature(calcm
aremaintainedat1Cdifferenceintemperature(calcm1sec
sec1C).The
C).The
conductivityofamaterialisvariableduetosoilmoistureandparticle
conductivityofamaterialisvariableduetosoilmoistureandparticle
size.Manyrocksandsoilsareextremelypoorconductorsofheat.
size.Manyrocksandsoilsareextremelypoorconductorsofheat.
ThermalInertia
ThermalInertia
Thermalinertia
Thermalinertia((PP)isameasurementofthethermalresponseofa
)isameasurementofthethermalresponseofa
materialtotemperaturechangesandismeasuredincaloriespersquare
materialtotemperaturechangesandismeasuredincaloriespersquare
2
2sec1/2
centimeterpersecondsquarerootperdegreeCelsius(calcm
centimeterpersecondsquarerootperdegreeCelsius(calcm sec1/2
11
C
C ).Thermalinertiaiscomputedusingtheequation:
).Thermalinertiaiscomputedusingtheequation:
1/2
P=(Kxpxc)
P=(Kxpxc)1/2
33
where
K
isthermalconductivity,
p
isdensity(gcm
whereKisthermalconductivity,pisdensity(gcm ),and
),andccisthermal
isthermal
capacity.Densityisthemostimportantpropertyinthisequation
capacity.Densityisthemostimportantpropertyinthisequation
becausethermalinertiagenerallyincreaseslinearlywithincreasing
becausethermalinertiagenerallyincreaseslinearlywithincreasing
materialdensity.
materialdensity.
ApparentThermalInertia
ApparentThermalInertia
Itwouldbewonderfulifwecouldremotelysenseeachoftheaforementioned
Itwouldbewonderfulifwecouldremotelysenseeachoftheaforementioned
variablesandthensimplycomputethermalinertia.Unfortunately,thisisnotthecase
variablesandthensimplycomputethermalinertia.Unfortunately,thisisnotthecase
becauseconductivity,density,andthermalcapacitymustallbemeasured
becauseconductivity,density,andthermalcapacitymustallbemeasuredinsitu
insitu..
Nevertheless,itispossibletoremotelysenseandcomputean
Nevertheless,itispossibletoremotelysenseandcomputeanapparentthermalinertia
apparentthermalinertia
measurementperpixelinthefollowingmanner.Athermalinfraredimageisacquired
measurementperpixelinthefollowingmanner.Athermalinfraredimageisacquired
overtheidenticalterraininthenighttimeandintheearlyafternoon.Thetwoimages
overtheidenticalterraininthenighttimeandintheearlyafternoon.Thetwoimages
aregeometricallyandradiometricallyregisteredtooneanotherandthechangein
aregeometricallyandradiometricallyregisteredtooneanotherandthechangein
temperature,
temperature,T
Tforaspecificpixelisdeterminedbysubtractingthenighttimeapparent
foraspecificpixelisdeterminedbysubtractingthenighttimeapparent
temperaturefromthedaytimeapparenttemperature.Theapparentthermalinertia(ATI)
temperaturefromthedaytimeapparenttemperature.Theapparentthermalinertia(ATI)
perpixelis:
perpixelis:
ATI=
ATI=1A
1A
TT
with
withAAbeingthealbedo(reflectance)measuredinavisiblebandofthespectrumforthe
beingthealbedo(reflectance)measuredinavisiblebandofthespectrumforthe
pixelofinterest.
pixelofinterest.
ThermalInfraredDataCollection
ThermalInfraredDataCollection
Thermalinfraredremotesensordatamaybecollectedby:
Thermalinfraredremotesensordatamaybecollectedby:
acrosstrackthermalscanners
acrosstrackthermalscanners,and
,and
pushbroomlinearandareaarraychargecoupled
pushbroomlinearandareaarraychargecoupled
device(CCD)detectors
device(CCD)detectors..
ThermalInfraredMultispectralScanners
DaedalusDS1260,DS1268,andAirborneMultispectral
DaedalusDS1260,DS1268,andAirborneMultispectral
Scanner
Scanner
Thesescannersprovidemostoftheusefulhighspatialand
Thesescannersprovidemostoftheusefulhighspatialand
spectralresolutionthermalinfrareddataformonitoringthe
spectralresolutionthermalinfrareddataformonitoringthe
environment.TheDS1260recordsdatain10bandsincluding
environment.TheDS1260recordsdatain10bandsincluding
athermalinfraredchannel(8.5to13.5m).TheDS1268
athermalinfraredchannel(8.5to13.5m).TheDS1268
incorporatesthethematicmappermiddleinfraredbands(1.55
incorporatesthethematicmappermiddleinfraredbands(1.55
1.75mand2.082.35m).TheAMScontainsahottarget,
1.75mand2.082.35m).TheAMScontainsahottarget,
thermalinfrareddetector(3.0to5.5m)inadditiontothe
thermalinfrareddetector(3.0to5.5m)inadditiontothe
standardthermalinfrareddetector(8.5to12.5m).
standardthermalinfrareddetector(8.5to12.5m).
The
Thediameter
diameterofthecirculargroundareaviewedbythe
ofthecirculargroundareaviewedbythe
sensor,
sensor,DD,isafunctionofthe
,isafunctionoftheinstantaneousfieldofview
instantaneousfieldofview,,,,
ofthescannermeasuredinmilliradians(mrad)andthe
ofthescannermeasuredinmilliradians(mrad)andthealtitude
altitude
ofthescannerabovegroundlevel
ofthescannerabovegroundlevel,,HH,where:
,where:
D=Hx
D=Hx
Forexample,iftheIFOVofthescanneris2.5mrad,the
Forexample,iftheIFOVofthescanneris2.5mrad,the
groundsizeofthepixelinmetersisaproductoftheIFOV
groundsizeofthepixelinmetersisaproductoftheIFOV
(0.0025)andthealtitudeabovegroundlevel(AGL)inmeters.
(0.0025)andthealtitudeabovegroundlevel(AGL)inmeters.
IFOVsrangefrom0.5to5milliradians
IFOVsrangefrom0.5to5milliradians
highdensity
highdensity
magnetic
magnetic
tape
tape
amplifier
amplifier
modulated
modulated
light
light
source
source
recorder
recorder
mirror
mirror
optional
optional
film
film
recorder
recorder
H
H
hot
hot
calibration
calibration
source
source
dewarof
dewarof
liquid
liquid
nitrogen
nitrogen
detector
detector
scan
scan
mirror
mirror
cold
cold
source
source
radiantflux,
radiantflux,
withinthe
withinthe
instantaneousfield
instantaneousfield
ofview,
ofview,
D
D
focusing
focusing
mirrors
mirrors
total
total
angular
angular
fieldof
fieldof
view
view
Characteristicsofa
Characteristicsofa
ThermalInfrared
ThermalInfrared
AirborneAcrosstrack
AirborneAcrosstrack
Scanner
Scanner
GroundResolutionCellSizeAlongaSingleAcrossTrackScan
GroundResolutionCellSizeAlongaSingleAcrossTrackScan
Thermalinfrareddetectorsareusuallycomposedof:
Thermalinfrareddetectorsareusuallycomposedof:
In:Sb(indiumantimonide)withapeaksensitivitynear5m;
In:Sb(indiumantimonide)withapeaksensitivitynear5m;
Gd:Hg(mercurydopedgermanium)withapeaksensitivitynear
Gd:Hg(mercurydopedgermanium)withapeaksensitivitynear
10m,or
10m,or
Hg:Cd:Te(mercurycadmiumtelluride)sensitiveovertherange
Hg:Cd:Te(mercurycadmiumtelluride)sensitiveovertherange
from814m.
from814m.
Thedetectorsarecooledtolowtemperatures(196C;243C;73K)
Thedetectorsarecooledtolowtemperatures(196C;243C;73K)
usingliquidheliumorliquidnitrogen.Coolingthedetectorsinsuresthat
usingliquidheliumorliquidnitrogen.Coolingthedetectorsinsuresthat
theradiantenergy(photons)recordedbythedetectorscomesfromthe
theradiantenergy(photons)recordedbythedetectorscomesfromthe
terrainandnotfromtheambienttemperatureofobjectswithinthe
terrainandnotfromtheambienttemperatureofobjectswithinthe
scanneritself.
scanneritself.
12
10
1012
RelativeResponse
RelativeResponse
11
10
1011
In:Sb
In:Sb
(Indium
(Indium
Antimonide)
Antimonide)
10
10
1010
9
10
109
Ge:Hg
Ge:Hg
(Mercurydoped
(Mercurydoped
Germanium)
Germanium)
8
10
108
1
667
8
110
1 1.5
1.52
2 3
34
45
5
7
8
0 15
1520
20
Wavelength,m
Wavelength,m
PeakSensitivityofIndium
PeakSensitivityofIndium
AntimonideandMercury
AntimonideandMercury
dopedGermaniumThermal
dopedGermaniumThermal
InfraredDetectors
InfraredDetectors
Thereisan
Thereisaninverserelationship
inverserelationshipbetweenhaving
betweenhavinghighspatialresolution
highspatialresolution
and
andhighradiometricresolution
highradiometricresolutionwhencollectingthermalinfrareddata.
whencollectingthermalinfrareddata.
Thelargertheradiometerinstantaneousfieldofview,
Thelargertheradiometerinstantaneousfieldofview,,thelongerthedwelltime
,thelongerthedwelltime
thatanindividualdetectorcanviewtheterrainwithintheIFOVduringasinglesweep
thatanindividualdetectorcanviewtheterrainwithintheIFOVduringasinglesweep
ofthemirror.AlargerIFOVprovidesgoodradiometricresolutionwhichistheability
ofthemirror.AlargerIFOVprovidesgoodradiometricresolutionwhichistheability
todiscriminatebetweenverysmalldifferencesinradiantenergyexitingtheterrain
todiscriminatebetweenverysmalldifferencesinradiantenergyexitingtheterrain
element.Infact,theradiantenergysignalmeasuredmaywellbemuchstrongerthan
element.Infact,theradiantenergysignalmeasuredmaywellbemuchstrongerthan
anynoiseintroducedfromthesensorsystemcomponents.Whenthistakesplacewe
anynoiseintroducedfromthesensorsystemcomponents.Whenthistakesplacewe
saythatwehavea
saythatwehaveagoodsignaltonoiseratio
goodsignaltonoiseratio.Ofcourse,thelargertheIFOV,thepoorer
.Ofcourse,thelargertheIFOV,thepoorer
theabilitytoresolvefinespatialdetail.SelectingasmallerIFOVwillincreasethe
theabilitytoresolvefinespatialdetail.SelectingasmallerIFOVwillincreasethe
spatialresolution.But,thesensorwilldwellashortertimeoneachterrainelement
spatialresolution.But,thesensorwilldwellashortertimeoneachterrainelement
duringasweepofthemirror,resultinginpoorerradiometricresolutionandperhapsa
duringasweepofthemirror,resultinginpoorerradiometricresolutionandperhapsa
poorersignaltonoiseratio.
poorersignaltonoiseratio.
InverseSquareLaw
InverseSquareLaw
Halvingthedistanceofaremotesensingdetectorfromapoint
Halvingthedistanceofaremotesensingdetectorfromapoint
sourcequadruplestheinfraredenergyreceivedbythatdetector.
sourcequadruplestheinfraredenergyreceivedbythatdetector.
The
Theinversesquarelaw
inversesquarelawstatesthat:
statesthat:
theintensityofradiationemittedfromapointsource
theintensityofradiationemittedfromapointsource
variesastheinversesquareofthedistancebetween
variesastheinversesquareofthedistancebetween
sourceandreceiver.
sourceandreceiver.
Thus,wecanobtainamoreintense,strongthermalinfrared
Thus,wecanobtainamoreintense,strongthermalinfrared
signalifwecangettheremotesensordetectorasclosetothe
signalifwecangettheremotesensordetectorasclosetothe
groundaspractical.
groundaspractical.
InversesquareLaw
InversesquareLaw
DD2
2
DD1
1
2d
2d
remote
remote
detectors
detectors
2
1cm
1cm 2
dd
BlackbodyPointSource,S
BlackbodyPointSource,S
Theintensityof
Theintensityof
thermalradiation
thermalradiation
emittedfromapoint
emittedfromapoint
source,
source,SS,variesas
,variesas
theinversesquareof
theinversesquareof
thedistance,
thedistance,dd,,
betweenthesource
betweenthesource
andremotedetector
andremotedetector
receiver,
receiver,DD11or
orDD22
Consideration
Consideration
Mostthermalinfraredremotesensinginvestigationstrytomaintaingood
Mostthermalinfraredremotesensinginvestigationstrytomaintaingood
radiometricandspatialresolutionby:
radiometricandspatialresolutionby:
selectingafairlylargeIFOVsuchas2.5mrad,and
selectingafairlylargeIFOVsuchas2.5mrad,and
flyingatarelativelylowaltitudetoobtainsmallerpixelsizes.
flyingatarelativelylowaltitudetoobtainsmallerpixelsizes.
Unfortunately,atloweraltitudes,thehighspatialresolutionmaybe
Unfortunately,atloweraltitudes,thehighspatialresolutionmaybe
outweighedbythefactthat
outweighedbythefactthatmoreflightlinesarerequiredtocoverthe
moreflightlinesarerequiredtocoverthe
area
areacomparedtomoreefficientcoverageathigheraltitudeswithlarger
comparedtomoreefficientcoverageathigheraltitudeswithlarger
pixels.Thepixelsizeandthegeographicsizeofthesurveyare
pixels.Thepixelsizeandthegeographicsizeofthesurveyare
considered,objectivesareweighed,andacompromiseisreached.
considered,objectivesareweighed,andacompromiseisreached.
MultipleflightlinesofaircraftMSSdataaredifficulttomosaic
MultipleflightlinesofaircraftMSSdataaredifficulttomosaic..
GeometricCorrectionofAcrossTrack
GeometricCorrectionofAcrossTrack
ThermalInfraredScannerData
ThermalInfraredScannerData
Thermalinfraredscanningsystems(actuallyallscanningsystems)
Thermalinfraredscanningsystems(actuallyallscanningsystems)
introducenumeroustypesof
introducenumeroustypesofgeometricerror
geometricerrorthatmustbeunderstood
thatmustbeunderstood
becausetheyimpacta)thequalityoftheimageryforvisualordigital
becausetheyimpacta)thequalityoftheimageryforvisualordigital
imageprocessingandanalysis,andb)thecreationofplanimetricmaps
imageprocessingandanalysis,andb)thecreationofplanimetricmaps
fromthethermalinfrareddata.Themostimportantconsiderationsare:
fromthethermalinfrareddata.Themostimportantconsiderationsare:
groundswathwidth;
groundswathwidth;
spatialresolutioncellsize;
spatialresolutioncellsize;
tangentialscaledistortion,and
tangentialscaledistortion,and
onedimensionalreliefdisplacement.
onedimensionalreliefdisplacement.
PerspectiveGeometryofaVerticalAerialPhotograph
PerspectiveGeometryofaVerticalAerialPhotograph
andAcrosstrackOnedimensionalReliefDisplacement
andAcrosstrackOnedimensionalReliefDisplacement
andTangentialScaleDistortion
andTangentialScaleDistortion
DaytimeOptical
DaytimeOptical
andNighttime
andNighttime
ThermalInfrared
ThermalInfrared
ImageryofNew
ImageryofNew
YorkCity
YorkCity
AerialPhotograph
AerialPhotograph
ThermalInfrared
ThermalInfrared
science
science
buildings
buildings
library
library
dorms
dorms
DaytimeOpticaland
DaytimeOpticaland
NighttimeThermalInfrared
NighttimeThermalInfrared
ImageryoftheUniversityof
ImageryoftheUniversityof
SouthCarolinaCampus
SouthCarolinaCampus
parking
parking
a.
a.
soccerfield
soccerfield
onedimensional
onedimensional
relief
relief
displacement
displacement
steam
steam
lines
lines
manhole
manhole
cover
cover
line-of-flight
line-of-flight
steam
steam
plant
plant
2xreduction
b.
b.
April26,1981
April
April26,1981
April
4:56am
4:56am
1x1m
1x1m
RadiometricCalibrationof
RadiometricCalibrationof
ThermalScannerData
ThermalScannerData
Tousethethermalinfraredremotesensordataforpracticalpurposes
Tousethethermalinfraredremotesensordataforpracticalpurposes
suchastemperaturemapping,itis
suchastemperaturemapping,itisnecessarytocalibratethebrightness
necessarytocalibratethebrightness
values
valuesstoredonthedigitaltapetotemperaturevalues.Thisradiometric
storedonthedigitaltapetotemperaturevalues.Thisradiometric
calibrationmaybeperformedusing:
calibrationmaybeperformedusing:
internalblackbodysourcereferencing
internalblackbodysourcereferencing,or
,or
externalempiricalreferencingbasedon
externalempiricalreferencingbasedoninsitu
insitudatacollection
datacollection..
ExternalEmpiricalReferencingof
ExternalEmpiricalReferencingof
ThermalInfraredImagery
ThermalInfraredImagery
libr ar tea ted d

R Roa teda iodSiome mne sintre tricgicaBllya rllyigUUhn tncn acelibassV
R
e
m
R e m o te S e n sin g B r ig h tn e ssV a lua lue ,Be ,BV ijV ij
Linear
Linear
BVij =0.6586x+56.173
BVij =0.6586x+56.173
R 2=0.8631
R 2=0.8631
a.
a.
Nonlinear:2ndOrderPolynomial
Nonlinear:2ndOrderPolynomial
BVij =0.0148x2+2.1157x+26.303
BVij =0.0148x2+2.1157x+26.303
R 2=0.9895
R 2=0.9895
b.b.
InsituTrueKineticTemperatureMeasurement,T kin
PushbroomLinearandAreaArray
PushbroomLinearandAreaArray
Chargecoupleddevice(CCD)Detectors
Chargecoupleddevice(CCD)Detectors
Itispossibletomakebothlinearandareaarraysthataresensitivetomidandthermal
Itispossibletomakebothlinearandareaarraysthataresensitivetomidandthermal
infraredradiation.
infraredradiation.Linearandareaarraysallowimprovedthermalinfraredremote
Linearandareaarraysallowimprovedthermalinfraredremote
sensingtotakeplacebecause
sensingtotakeplacebecause::
thesolidstatemicroelectronicdetectorsaresmallerinsize(e.g.20x20mm)and
thesolidstatemicroelectronicdetectorsaresmallerinsize(e.g.20x20mm)and
weight,requirelesspowertooperate,havefewermovingparts,andaremorereliable;
weight,requirelesspowertooperate,havefewermovingparts,andaremorereliable;
eachdetectorinthearraycanviewthegroundresolutionelementforalongertime
eachdetectorinthearraycanviewthegroundresolutionelementforalongertime
(i.e.itisaslongerdwelltime),allowingmorephotonsofenergyfromwithintheIFOV
(i.e.itisaslongerdwelltime),allowingmorephotonsofenergyfromwithintheIFOV
toberecordedbytheindividualdetectorresultinginimprovedradiometricresolution
toberecordedbytheindividualdetectorresultinginimprovedradiometricresolution
(theabilitytoresolvesmallertemperaturedifferences);
(theabilitytoresolvesmallertemperaturedifferences);
eachdetectorelementinthelinearorareaarrayisfixedrelativetoallotherelements
eachdetectorelementinthelinearorareaarrayisfixedrelativetoallotherelements
thereforethegeometryofthethermalinfraredimageismuchimprovedrelativetothat
thereforethegeometryofthethermalinfraredimageismuchimprovedrelativetothat
producedbyanacrosstrackscanningsystem;and
producedbyanacrosstrackscanningsystem;and
somelinearandareathermaldetectorsdonotevenrequirethecoolingapparatus.
somelinearandareathermaldetectorsdonotevenrequirethecoolingapparatus.
ForwardLookingInfrared(FLIR)Systems
ForwardLookingInfrared(FLIR)Systems
Fordecades,themilitaryorganizationsthroughoutthe
Fordecades,themilitaryorganizationsthroughoutthe
worldhavefundedthedevelopmentofFLIRtypesystems
worldhavefundedthedevelopmentofFLIRtypesystems
thatlookobliquelyaheadoftheaircraftandacquirehigh
thatlookobliquelyaheadoftheaircraftandacquirehigh
qualitythermalinfraredimagery,especiallyatnight.
qualitythermalinfraredimagery,especiallyatnight.
FLIRsystemscollecttheinfraredenergybasedonthe
FLIRsystemscollecttheinfraredenergybasedonthe
sameprinciplesasanacrosstrackscannerpreviously
sameprinciplesasanacrosstrackscannerpreviously
discussed,exceptthatthemirrorpointsforwardabout45
discussed,exceptthatthemirrorpointsforwardabout45
andprojectsterrainenergyduringasinglesweepofthe
andprojectsterrainenergyduringasinglesweepofthe
mirrorontoalineararrayofthermalinfrareddetectors.
mirrorontoalineararrayofthermalinfrareddetectors.
ForwardLooking
ForwardLooking
Infrared(FLIR)
Infrared(FLIR)
Examples
Examples
DiurnalTemperatureCycleofTypicalMaterials
The
Thediurnalcycle
diurnalcycleencompasses24hours.Beginningatsunrise,theearthbegins
encompasses24hours.Beginningatsunrise,theearthbegins
interceptingmainlyshortwavelengthenergy(0.40.7
interceptingmainlyshortwavelengthenergy(0.40.7m)fromtheSun.Fromabout
m)fromtheSun.Fromabout
6:00amto8:00pm,theterraininterceptstheincomingshortwavelengthenergyand
6:00amto8:00pm,theterraininterceptstheincomingshortwavelengthenergyand
reflectsmuchofitbackintotheatmospherewherewecanuseopticalremotesensorsto
reflectsmuchofitbackintotheatmospherewherewecanuseopticalremotesensorsto
measurethereflectedenergy.However,someoftheincidentshortwavelengthenergy
measurethereflectedenergy.However,someoftheincidentshortwavelengthenergy
isabsorbedbytheterrainandthenreradiatedbackintotheatmosphereasthermal
isabsorbedbytheterrainandthenreradiatedbackintotheatmosphereasthermal
infraredlongwavelengthradiation(314
infraredlongwavelengthradiation(314m).Theoutgoinglongwaveradiation
m).Theoutgoinglongwaveradiation
reachesitshighestvalueduringthedaywhenthesurfacetemperatureishighest.This
reachesitshighestvalueduringthedaywhenthesurfacetemperatureishighest.This
peakusuallylagstwotofourhoursafterthemiddaypeakofincomingshortwave
peakusuallylagstwotofourhoursafterthemiddaypeakofincomingshortwave
radiation,owingtothetimetakentoheatthesoil.Thecontributionofreflectedshort
radiation,owingtothetimetakentoheatthesoil.Thecontributionofreflectedshort
wavelengthenergyandemittedlongwavelengthenergycausesanenergysurplusto
wavelengthenergyandemittedlongwavelengthenergycausesanenergysurplusto
takeplaceduringtheday.Bothincomingandoutgoingshortwaveradiationbecome
takeplaceduringtheday.Bothincomingandoutgoingshortwaveradiationbecome
zeroaftersunset(exceptforlightfromthemoonandstars),butoutgoinglongwave
zeroaftersunset(exceptforlightfromthemoonandstars),butoutgoinglongwave
radiationcontinuesallnight.
radiationcontinuesallnight.
PeakPeriodofDaily
PeakPeriodofDaily
OutgoingLongwave
OutgoingLongwave
RadiationandtheDiurnal
RadiationandtheDiurnal
RadiantTemperatureof
RadiantTemperatureof
SoilsandRocks,
SoilsandRocks,
Vegetation,Water,Moist
Vegetation,Water,Moist
SoilandMetalObjects
SoilandMetalObjects
Ifallthecurvesforsoilsandrocks,water,vegetation,moistsoil,andmetalobjectslie
Ifallthecurvesforsoilsandrocks,water,vegetation,moistsoil,andmetalobjectslie
exactlyontopofoneanother,thenremotesensinginthethermalinfraredportionofthe
exactlyontopofoneanother,thenremotesensinginthethermalinfraredportionofthe
spectrumwouldbeofnovaluebecauseallthephenomenawouldhavethesame
spectrumwouldbeofnovaluebecauseallthephenomenawouldhavethesame
apparentradianttemperature.Therewouldbenocontrastintheimagerybetweenthe
apparentradianttemperature.Therewouldbenocontrastintheimagerybetweenthe
differentphenomena.Fortunately,thereareonlytwotimesduringtheday(aftersunrise
differentphenomena.Fortunately,thereareonlytwotimesduringtheday(aftersunrise
andnearsunset)whensomematerialslikesoilsandrocksandwaterhaveexactlythe
andnearsunset)whensomematerialslikesoilsandrocksandwaterhaveexactlythe
sameradianttemperature.Duringthis
sameradianttemperature.Duringthiscrossover
crossovertimeperioditisnotwisetoacquire
timeperioditisnotwisetoacquire
thermalinfraredremotelysenseddata.
thermalinfraredremotelysenseddata.
Fortunately,somematerialsstoreheatmoreefficientlythatothers,i.e.theyhavea
Fortunately,somematerialsstoreheatmoreefficientlythatothers,i.e.theyhavea
higherthermalcapacity.Forexample,waterhasamuchhigherthermalcapacitythan
higherthermalcapacity.Forexample,waterhasamuchhigherthermalcapacitythan
soilsandrocks).Itsdiurnaltemperaturerangefluctuatesverylittlewhencompared
soilsandrocks).Itsdiurnaltemperaturerangefluctuatesverylittlewhencompared
withthedramatictemperaturefluctuationofsoilsandrocksduringa24hrperiod.
withthedramatictemperaturefluctuationofsoilsandrocksduringa24hrperiod.
SolomonBlattFieldhouseon
SolomonBlattFieldhouseon
theUniversityofSouth
theUniversityofSouth
CarolinaCampus
CarolinaCampus
metalvent
metalvent
a.
a.
overhanging
overhanging
eaves
eaves
b.
b.
March10,1983
March10,1983
4:30am
4:30am
0.5x0.5m
0.5x0.5m
109
109
108
108
6,000KSun
6,000KSun
=0.48
max
max=0.48
107
107
3,000KTungstenfilament
3,000KTungstenfilament
=0.96
max
max=0.96
105
105
104
104
103
103
visiblelight
visiblelight
Re
lativeR
adiate
dEnerg
Relative
Radiated
Intensit
yyy
Rela
tiveR
adiated
Energ
106
106
6,000KRedhotobject
6,000KRedhotobject
=3.62
max
max=3.62
300KEarth
300KEarth
=9.67
max
max=9.67
195KDryice
195KDryice
=14.86
max
max=14.86
102
102
101
101
100
100
101
1
100.1
.4 .7 1
0.1 .4 .7 1
10
10
100
100
79KLiquidair
79KLiquidair
=36.68
max
max=36.68
1000
1000
WavelengthinMicrometers,m
WavelengthinMicrometers,m
BlackbodyRadiation
BlackbodyRadiation
CurvesforSeveral
CurvesforSeveral
Objectsincluding
Objectsincluding
theSunandtheEarth
theSunandtheEarth

Thermal 5

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Thermal 5

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

ThermalInfraredRemoteSensing

libr ar tea ted d

Potrebbero piacerti anche