EXPLORATION

GEOPHYSICS

Fundamental of Seismic Method

Program
Studi
Physiography of
IndonesiaTeknik Geologi
Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian
dan Energi
Universitas Trisakti

Dr. Ir. Eko

Widianto, MT
Semester Genap_2015
- 2016

LECTURE MATERIALS
1

INTRODUCTION: Definition, Level Petroleum Investigation, Role of

3
4
5
6
7
8

10

11

Geophysical Methods

Fundamental of Seismic Method

Seismic Acquisition
Seismic Processing
Seismic Structural Interpretation
Seismic Stratigraphic Interpretation
Seismic Interpretation Exercise (2X)
Review of Gravity Method
Paradigm Shift in Gravity Data
Utilization
Gravity data analysis for Oil and Gas
Exploration
Gravity Data analysis for Reservoir
Monitoring
2

SEISMIC METHODS

Geophysical Methods
Passive methods: measure natural
properties or fields of the Earth, e.g.,
gravity, magnetic, radioactive, etc.
Active methods: perturb the natural
system and measures the response.
Artificial signals are introduced into the
earth and subsequently recorded after
being modified by the earth materials

Seismic Methods

Seismic methods, as typically applied in

exploration seismology, are considered active
geophysical methods.
Seismic method uses body waves to carry earth
subsurface information to the surface
As seismic wave hit the elastic boundary it will get
reflected, refracted, and transmitted
In seismic surveying, ground movement caused by
some source is measured at a variety of distances
from the source.
The type of seismic experiment differs depending
on what aspect of the recorded ground motion is
used in the subsequent analysis.
Reflection: standard in oil exploration (deep)
Refraction: for shallow features like depth to
bedrock or thickness of the unconsolidated
material.

Limitations
Resolution: the ability to separate two
features that very close together or, the
smallest change in input that will produce
a detectable change in output.
Noise: any unwanted signal, can be from
the instrument, uncontrollable conditions,
operator; noise can mask the contrast or
manifest as an uncertainty in the inversion
process.

Steps in Geophysical Investigation

Method selection: technical, cost considerations
Designing the survey: choosing the configuration
that works best to serve the objective
Acquisition: conducting the survey, data collection
Processing: processing of the geophysical data;
curve fitting, modeling, signal processing using
soft wares (geophysicists are better at this)
Interpretation: physical meaning of the data,
choosing between the alternatives, integrating
with info from other source

SEISMIC WAVES

Seismic Waves

When the is Earth rapidly

displaced or distorted at
some point, the energy
ce frame, the wave is defined by two parameters: amplitude
and wave
imparted
into
the Earth by
ude is the peak to trough height of the wave dividedthe
by two.
Wave- of the distortion
source
distance over which the wave goes through one complete
can cycle
be (e.g.,
transmitted in the
to the next, or from one trough to the next).
form of elastic waves. A wave
is
a
disturbance
that
nd perspective, we can examine the wave at a fixed location on the surpropagates through, or on the
nd as it propagates past us. That is, as time varies. That wave would be
surface of, a medium. Elastic
hown below.
waves
this condition
e frame, the wave is defined by two parameters: amplitude
andsatisfy
wavealso
propagate through
de is the peak to trough height of the wave dividedand
by two.
Wavethe cycle
medium
istance over which the wave goes through one complete
(e.g., without causing
permanent deformation of
o the next, or from one trough to the next).
any point in the medium.
d perspective, we can examine the wave at a fixed location
on the surElastic
waves
are
fairly
d as it propagates past us. That is, as time varies. Thatcommon.
wave wouldFor
be example, sound
own below.
propagates through the air as
elastic waves and water
waves propagate across the
surface of a pond as elastic

The wave is characterized by :

Amplitude is the peak to trough height of
the wave divided by two.
Wavelength is the distance over which the
wave goes through one complete cycle
(e.g., from one peak to the next, or from
one trough to the next).
Period is wavelength measured in time
Frequency is number of cycle in 1 second
Velocity is the speed of wave propagation

Snell's Law

These ray paths are simply drawn to be perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
wave field at all times. As they interact with the boundary, these ray paths obey Snell's Law.
Snell's Law can be derived in a number of different ways, but the way it is usually described
is that the ray path that follows Snell's Law is the path by which the wave would take the least
amount of time to propagate between two fixed points.
Consider the refracted ray paths shown above. In our particular case, v2, the velocity of the
half space, is less than v1, the velocity of the layer. Snell's Law states that in this case, i2, the
angle between a perpendicular to the boundary and the direction of the refracted ray path,
should be smaller than i1, the angle between a perpendicular to the boundary and the
direction of the direct ray path. This is exactly the situation predicted by the wave fronts
shown in the figure above.

Wave fronts
and Ray paths

Ray paths Ray paths are nothing more than lines that show the direction that the seismic
wave is propagating. For any given wave, there are an infinite set of ray paths that could be
used. In the example shown above, for instance, a valid ray path could be any radial line drawn
from the source. We have shown only a few of the possible ray paths.

Wave front Wave fronts connect positions of the seismic wave that are doing the same
thing at the same time. In the example shown above, the wave fronts are spherical in shape.
One such wave front would be the sphere drawn through the middle of the dark blue area. This
surface would connect all portions of the wave that have the largest possible negative
amplitude at some particular time.
In principle and in practice, ray paths are equivalent to the directions of current flow, and wave
fronts are equivalent to the equipotential lines. They are also equivalent to field direction and
strength in magnetism.

Seismic Waves
Surface wave: considered noise
Body waves: P (compressional) and S (shear)
Velocity depends on the density of the layers;
increases with increasing density
Incident, reflected, and refracted rays
Ray gets deflected away from the normal
(lighter to a denser medium)
Critical angle: refracted wave travels along the
interface

Seismic Velocities of Earth Materials

The P and S wave velocities of various earth materials are shown below.
Material

P wave Velocity (m/s)

S wave Velocity (m/s)

Air

332

Water

1400-1500

Petroleum

1300-1400

Steel

6100

3500

Concrete

3600

2000

Granite

5500-5900

2800-3000

Basalt

6400

3200

Sandstone

1400-4300

700-2800

Limestone

5900-6100

2800-3000

Sand (Unsaturated)

200-1000

80-400

Sand (Saturated)

800-2200

320-880

Clay

1000-2500

400-1000

Glacial Till (Saturated)

1500-2500

600-1000

Seismic Body Waves

Wave Type
(and names)

Particle Motion

Other Characteristics

P(Compressional),
Primary, Longitudinal

Alternating
compressions
(pushes) and dilations
(pulls) which are directed
in the same direction as the
wave is propagating (along
the ray path); and therefore,
perpendicular to the wave
front.

P motion travels fastest in materials,

so the P-wave is the first-arriving
energy on a seismogram. Generally
smaller and higher frequency than the
S and Surface-waves. P waves in a
liquid or gas are pressure waves,
including sound waves.

S (Shear), Secondary, Alternating

transverse
Transverse
motions (perpendicular to the
direction of propagation, and
the raypath); commonly
approximately polarized such
that particle motion is in
vertical or horizontal planes.

S-waves do not travel through fluids,

so do not exist in Earths outer core
(inferred to be primarily liquid iron)
or in air or water or molten rock
(magma). S waves travel slower than
P waves in a solid and, therefore,
arrive after the P wave.

Seismic Surface Waves

Wave Type
(and names)

Particle Motion

Other Characteristics

L,
Love, Surface
waves, Long
waves

Transverse horizontal motion,

perpendicular to the direction of
propagation and generally parallel
to the Earths surface.

Love waves exist because of the Earths

surface. They are largest at the surface and
decrease in amplitude with depth. Love waves
are dispersive, that is, the wave velocity is
dependent on frequency, generally with low
frequencies propagating at higher velocity.
Depth of penetration of the Love waves is also
dependent on frequency, with lower frequencies
penetrating to greater depth.

R,
Rayleigh, Surface
waves, Long
waves, Ground
roll

Motion is both in the direction of

propagation and perpendicular (in
a vertical plane), and phased so
that the motion is generally
elliptical either prograde or
retrograde.

Rayleigh waves are also dispersive and the

amplitudes generally decrease with depth in the
Earth. Appearance and particle motion are
similar to water waves. Depth of penetration of
the Rayleigh waves is also dependent on
frequency, with lower frequencies penetrating to
greater depth. Generally, Rayleigh waves travel
slightly slower than Love waves.

P-wave shadow due to refraction between liquid

outer core and the mantle above and solid inner
core below
Crust ~2.7-3.0 g cm3
Mantle ~3.3-3.5 g/cm3.

Outer core ~10 g/cm3;

Inner Core ~12-13 g/cm3.

CORE: Liquid outer core S-waves do not propagate

through.
Composition: Fe + minor Ni.
Evidence:
Earths density
~5.5 g/cm3
(speed of
rotation).

Compressional Wave (P-Wave)

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating compression

and dilation. Particle motion is parallel to the direction of propagation
(longitudinal). Material returns to its original shape after wave passes.

Shear Wave (S-Wave)

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating transverse motion. Particle

motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagation (transverse). Transverse particle
motion shown here is vertical but can be in any direction. However, Earths layers tend to
cause mostly vertical (SV; in the vertical plane) or horizontal (SH) shear motions. Material
returns to its original shape after wave passes.

Rayleigh Wave (R-Wave)

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of elliptical motions

(generally retrograde elliptical) in the vertical plane and parallel to the
direction of propagation. Amplitude decreases with depth. Material returns
to its original shape after wave passes.

Love Wave (L-Wave)

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating transverse motions.

Particle motion is horizontal and perpendicular to the direction of propagation
(transverse). To aid in seeing that the particle motion is purely horizontal, focus on
the Y axis (red line) as the wave propagates through it. Amplitude decreases with
depth. Material returns to its original shape after wave passes.

1. What seismic wave type is shown here?

2. What seismic wave type is shown here?

3. What seismic wave type is shown here?

4. What seismic wave type is shown here?

Lecture 6

Seismic Reflections
Shot

Receiver

Seismic Record

Trough

+
Peak

Layer 1
Layer 2

Impedance
Increase

Layer 2
Layer 2
Layer 3

Layer 3

Layer 3
Layer 4

Layer 4

Impedance
Decrease

Impedance
Increase

Travel Time (2 way) in msec

Layer 1

Impedance = Velocity * Density

Peak over Trough is an
Increase in Impedance

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

The Ideal Seismic Response

Able to resolve boundaries of beds a few meters thick
1 meter

Increase in Impedance

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Decrease in Impedance

FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Scale for Seismic Data

Lamina
Lamina Sets
Beds
Bed Sets
Parasequences
Parasequence Sets
Sequences
Sequence Sets

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Although seismic data

can not image smallscale stratal units, it
can image mid- to
large-scale units
The big advantage of
seismic data is areal
coverage

FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Seismic - Units 10s of Meters Thick

Predominantly

Shale

Predominantly

Sand

Predominantly

Shale

10 m
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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Wave Equation Lingo

Rarefaction

Compression

A = Amplitude

= Wavelength
length, ft or m

P = Period
time

Dp = Pulse
Period = Time for the waveform
Duration
to travel 1 wavelength
time
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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Basic Equations
1. P = 1 / f
2.

=V*P = V/

3. d = V * T / 2

where
P = Period
V = Velocity
f = Frequency d = distance (depth)
= Wavelength T = time

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Back to Basics
Seismic energy travels down and
is reflected off acoustic boundaries
Shot

Seismic
Record

Receiver

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5

Increase in
impedance

0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3

Increase in
impedance
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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

1.4

Acoustic Structure of the Earth

Imped
Low

Shot

Receiver

Reflection
Coefficients

High

C
O
N
V
O
L
U
T
I
O
N

I1 = 1 * V1
I2 =

* V2

I3 =

* V3

I4 =

* V4

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Pulse Seismic
Trace

FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

That Pesky Pulse

If the frequency content (Bandwidth)
is very large, then the pulse
approaches a spike and we can
resolve fine-scale stratigraphy

Reflection
Coefficients

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Ideal Seismic
Pulse
Trace

FW
Schroeder

Typically the frequency

content is limited to about
10 to 50 Hz (BW = 40),
which limits our resolution

Typical Seismic
Pulse Trace

L 6 Seismic

Types of Pulses
Reflection
Coefficients

Minimum Phase
Causal (real no
motion before wave
arrives)
Front loaded
Peak arrival time is
frequency dependant
RC is at the first
displacement;
maximum displacement
(peak or trough) is
delayed by

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Types of Pulses
Reflection
Coefficients

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Zero Phase
Not Causal (not real,
since there is motion
before the wave
arrives)
Symmetric about RC
Peak arrival time is not
frequency dependant
Maximum peak-to-side
lobe ratio
RC is at the maximum
displacement (peak or
trough)
L 6 Seismic
FW
Schroeder

Polarity Minimum Phase

Reflection
Coefficients

SEG Normal Convention

+ A compression is:
Negative # on the tape
Displayed as a Trough

SEG = Society of Exploration Geophysics

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Polarity Zero Phase

Reflection
Coefficients

SEG Normal Convention

+ A compression is:
Positive # on the tape
Displayed as a Peak

SEG = Society of Exploration Geophysics

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

What Causes Reflections?

Any interface between
bodies with different
acoustic properties
Acoustic properties
define Impedance (I) , in
which
I = velocity *
density

Shot

Receiver

Layer 1
Layer 2

Boundary

Small change in impedance small

reflection
Large change in impedance large
reflection
L 6 Seismic
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FW
Schroeder

Time for Two Short Exercises

6a. Calculating Some
Reflection Coefficients

6b. Calculating Frequency

& Wavelength
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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Seismic Interface

Shale

Velocity = 2000 m/s

Density = 1.7 gm/cc

Sand

Velocity = 2400 m/s

Density = 1.8 gm/cc

I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient
I
+I
below

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above

FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Seismic Interface

Shale

Velocity = 2000 m/s

Density = 1.7 gm/cc
I = 2000 * 1.7 = 3400

Sand

Velocity = 2400 m/s

Density = 1.8 gm/cc
I = 2400 * 1.8 = 4320

I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient
I
+I
below

above

4320 - 3400
4300 + 3400

Of the incident energy, 12% is reflected, 88% is

transmitted
FW

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

Schroeder

0.119

L 6 Seismic

Seismic Interface

Shale

Velocity = 2000 m/s

Density = 1.7 gm/cc

Carbonate

Velocity = 2600 m/s

Density = 2.1 gm/cc

I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient
I
+I
below

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above

FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Seismic Interface

Shale

Velocity = 2000 m/s

Density = 1.7 gm/cc
I = 2000 * 1.7 = 3400

Carbonate

Velocity = 2600 m/s

Density = 2.1 gm/cc
I = 2600 * 2.1 = 5460

I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient
I
+I
below

above

5460 - 3400
5460 + 3400

Of the incident energy, 23% is reflected, 77% is

transmitted
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FW
Schroeder

0.232

L 6 Seismic

Exercise 6b: Frequency &

Wavelength
Fapparent = # cycle / time interval
Fdominant = (2* Fapparent)/
= Velocity / Fdominant

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Seismic Data & Stratal Surfaces

Seismic reflections parallel stratal surfaces

Reflection terminations mark unconformities
Changes in reflection character indicate facies changes
Stratal Surfaces

Unconformities

Facies Changes

Fluvial Incised Valley Fill

Coastal Plain

Foreshore/Upper Shoreface

Lower Shoreface - Offshore

Slope - Basin

Submarine Fan

Estuarine

Condensed Interval

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Why Stratal Surfaces?

Recall: Reflections are generated where there is a
change
in acoustic properties (I = v)
Consider: Where can there be sharp changes in
impedance?
horizontally as lithofacies change?
vertically across stratal boundaries?
Brushy Canyon Formation, West Texas

Very Gradational Lateral

Changes in Physical Properties

Can Have Abrupt Vertical

Changes in Physical Properties
Especially at PS Boundaries
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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

Not Every Reflection is Strata!

There are other seismic reflections out
there that may not be stratigraphic in
origin
Fluid
Contacts
Fault Planes

Multiples
Others

Stratal Surfaces

Unconformities
W

Facies Changes

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FW
Schroeder

L 6 Seismic

SEISMIC REFLECTION RECORDS

Reflection Seismic

Source

Receiver

Raw data

geology

seismic Section

SEISMIC REFRACTION

Seismic Refraction
Energy source: vibration created by a sledge
hammer blow or explosive in a drill hole
Wave propagation: spherical waves in a
homogeneous medium, wave fronts
Rays: perpendicular to wave fronts, shown on
diagrams
Geophone: device that detects vibrations
Seismograph: device that records the arrival
times

SEISMIC REFRACTION

SEISMIC REFRACTION

Shot Record
(travel-time curves superimposed)

Arrival Sequence
Geophones record the ground vibrations
(vertical motion) caused by wave propagation
Direct wave reaches first at the geophones
closer to the source
Head wave (refracted wave) reaches the the
geophones located farther away from the
source
Reflected waves are not the first in any
situation

Important Info for Refraction

Time of arrival of first wave at the
geophone is the most important for
refraction

Velocity Determination
Velocity = distance/ time
Slope = time/ distance = 1/V
Velocity = reciprocal of slope
Slope is a function of the velocity of the
layer alone (not thickness)
Changing the thickness will change the
distance at which head wave arrives first

Calculating the Thickness

Increasing the thickness of V1 from 50m to 100
increases the distance at which head wave
reaches the geophone first
Takes longer because it has to travel at a
velocity of V1 (slow) for a longer time (100 m)
compared to the original situation where it
travels only a short time (50 m)
Or, the distance at which it travels faster (V2) is
reduced

Calculating the Thickness

Either t0 or xc could be
used along with the
velocities to calculate
the thickness, h
Conventionally t0 is
used

THANK YOU