BIO2001: Cell and

molecular biology
Miss Donna-Marie Newby

CILIA & FLAGELLA

Ciliaandflagellaare cell organelles that are

projections from the cell

They are structurally similar but are differentiated

based on their function and/or length.

Cilia are short and there are usually many

(hundreds) cilia per cell

flagella are longer and there are fewer flagella per

cell (usually one to eight).

CILIA
Cilia are hair like appendages

extending from the surface of a

living cell
The length of a single cilium is

1-10 micrometres and width is

less than 1 micrometre
There two types of cilia -motile

and non-motile or primary cilia.

http://www.infovisual.info/02/004_en.html

They function separately and

sometimes together:

Non-motile Cilia
Non-motileor 'primary' cilia were long thought to be

evolutionary vestigial organs (since being first described in

1898). They are now recognised as playing crucial roles in a
number of organs. Some act as a sensory antenna for the cell,
receiving signals from other cells or fluids nearbythey act as
sensory receptors
In thekidney, for example, cilia bend with urine flow and send

a signal to alert the cells that there is a flow of urine

In theeye, non-motile cilia are found inside the light-sensitive

cells (photoreceptors) of the retina. These cilia act like

microscopic train-tracks, and allow the transport of vital
molecules from one end of the photoreceptor to the other

Cilia as a receptor

http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/news/News_Releases/jun07/photoreceptor-cilia-proteinsphoto.html

Motile Cilia
Motile' (or moving) cilia are found in the lungs,

respiratory tract and middle ear. These cilia have

a rhythmic waving or beating motion. They work,
for instance, to keep the airways clear of mucus
and dirt, allowing us to breathe easily and without
irritation.

Motile cilia

http://science.kennesaw.edu/~jdirnber/Bio2108/Lecture/LecPhysio/PhysioImmune.htm
l

http://alexandria.healthlibrary.ca/documents/notes/bom/unit_2/L-32%20Histolog
y%20of%20the%20Respiratory%20System%201.xml

FLAGELLA
Flagella are long, threadlike

appendages which protrudes

from the surface of a living
cell.
Flagellum actually means

whip thus is whip-like in

appearance
There are three types of

http://www.exchange3d.com/3D%20Model%20of%20Sperm%20cell%20with%20intern
al%20parts/prod_5851.html

flagella - bacterial, archaeal

Flagella
Bacterial flagellaare helical filaments that rotate like

screws. They are found in E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium.

There may be one, two or many such flagella per cell.
These flagella provide motility tobacteria.
Archaeal flagellaare similar to bacterial flagella but they

have a unique structure which lacks a central channel.

Eukaryotic flagellaare complex cellular projections

thatlashback and forth. (e.g., the sperm cell, which uses

its flagellum to propel itself through the female
reproductive tract.

Prokaryotic flagella
In prokaryotes cells the flagella are

filamentousproteinstructures composed of flagellin.

Prokaryotic flagella are muchthinnerthan eukaryotic

flagella
they lack the typical 9 + 2 arrangement of

microtubules.
prokaryotic flagella rotate
Eukaryotic flagella undulate

Typical arrangements of bacterial

flagella found in protists as well

http://eglobalmed.com/core/MedicalMicrobiology/gsbs.utmb.edu/microbook/ch002.ht
ml

Structure of cilia and

flagella
Cilia and flagella are made of micro tubules
Which are arranged in such a way to facilitate locomotion
Microtubules are conveyer belts inside the cells
They move vesicles, granules, organelles like

mitochondria, and chromosomes via special attachment

proteins.
They are composed of a protein called tubulin
Cilia and flagella move due to microtubules sliding

alongside each other

Structure of cillia and

flagella
Microtubules occur in

pairs in a circular
fashion
There are 9 pairs
2 individual
microtubules in the
centre

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilium

The basal body also

has microtubules
occurring in a circular
fashion these however
occur in
triplicates(centriole)

Motile vs non- motile cilia

http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage

The differences in movement

between cilia and flagella

http://www.diffen.com/difference/Cilia_vs_Flagella

This is due to the difference in interaction between

the microtubules in the cilia and flagella

MOVIE TIME
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QGAm6hMysTA

Ciliopathies
Lack of proper functioning of cilia and flagella can

cause several problems in human beings.

examples
If the cilia in the fallopian tubes are not functioning
properly then the fertilized ovum will not reach the
uterus and thus result in ectopicpregnancy.
A defect of the primary cilium in the renal tube

cells can lead to polycystickidney disease(PKD).

Flagellum dysfunction can also be responsible for

maleinfertilitybecause the sperm is not motile and

cannot swim to the ovum.

Centrioles
Centrioles are cell structures which are cylindrical in shape
Range from 300-700nm in length
They are found in most eukaryotic cells
Not found in fungi and most plants
Was first thought to exist only in animal cells
Composed of microtubules in a triplicate pattern in a

circular fashion

Microtubule arrangement in
centriole

http://www.answers.com/topic/centriole

http://www.yellowtang.org/cells.php

Function of centrioles
They help to organize the assembly of

microtubules during cell division

They replicate during interphase of mitosis

and meiosis
Act as basal bodies to form cilia and flagella
Basal bodies control the movement of cilia

and flagella

Function of centrioles
When two centrioles arranged in right angles to one

another they form what is known as the centrosome

Centrioles are involved in spindle formation during

cell division
Spindle fibers are made up of which are just simply

microtubules
These spindle fibers separate chromosomes during

cell division

http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookmito.html

MOVIE TIME

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5rqbmLiSkpk

ENDOMEMBRANE
SYSTEM
Cells have extensive sets of intracellular membranes, which

together compose the endomembrane system

The endomembrane system was first discovered in the late

1800s when scientist Camillo Golgi noticed that a certain stain

selectively marked only some internal cellular membranes.
Golgi thought that these intracellular membranes were

interconnected, but advances in microscopy and biochemical

studies of the various membrane-encased organelles later
made it clear that
organelles in the endomembrane system are separate

compartments with specific functions. These structures do

exchange membrane material, however, via a special type of
transport.

ENDOMEMBRANE
SYSTEM
Today, scientists know that the

endomembrane system includes

theendoplasmic reticulum(ER),Golgi
apparatus, andlysosomes.Vesiclesalso
allow the exchange of membrane components
with a cell's plasma membrane.
How Are Cell Membranes Synthesized?

ENDOMEMBRANE
SYSTEM
Membranes and their constituent proteins are assembled in the

ER
This organelle contains the enzymes involved in lipid synthesis,

and as lipids are manufactured in the ER, they are inserted into
the organelle's own membranes. This happens in part because
the lipids are too hydrophobic to dissolve into the cytoplasm.
Transmembrane proteins are also inserted in the membrane of

the ER
proteins that will be secreted by a cell are also directed to the

ER during translation, where they end up in thelumen,the

internal cavity, where they are then packaged for vesicular
release from the cell.

ENDOMEMBRANE
SYSTEM

The ER,Golgi apparatus and lysosomes are all

members of a network of membranes, but they

are not continuous with one another

Therefore, the membrane lipids and proteins

that are synthesized in the ER must be

transported through the network to their final
destination in membrane-boundvesicles
carried by the cytoskeleton network

Cargo-bearing vesicles pinch off of one set of

membranes and travel along microtubule

tracks to the next set of membranes, where
they fuse with these structures.
Trafficking occurs in both directions; the
http://scienceblogs.com/transcript/2006/07/golgi_maturation.php

forward direction takes vesicles from the site of

synthesis to the Golgi apparatus and next to a
cell's lysosomes or plasma membrane. Vesicles
that have released their cargo return via the
reverse direction.

Golgi Apparatus
Flattened sacs
Found in large numbers in secretory cells.
Functions in the collection, packaging,

and distribution of synthesized molecules

from RER and SER. Such as proteins lipids
or steroids
The Golgi apparatus functions as a

molecular assembly line in which

membrane proteins undergo extensive
post-translational modification.
http://scienceblogs.com/transcript/2006/07/golgi_maturation.php

Many Golgi reactions involve the addition

of sugar residues to membrane proteins

and secreted proteins.

How does the Golgi Apparatus

function?

Vesicles that bud off from the ER fuse

with the closest Golgi membranes,

called thecis-Golgi.
Molecules then travel through the

Golgi apparatus via vesicle transport

until they reach the end of the
assembly line at the farthest sacs
from the ER called thetrans-Golgi.
Later, as vesicles of membrane lipids

http://scienceblogs.com/transcript/2006/07/golgi_maturation.php

and proteins bud off from the transGolgi, they are directed to their
appropriate destinations either
lysosomes, storage vesicles, or the
plasma membrane

MOVIE TIME

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= OOSDP6DWwL4&feature=related
Golgi Apparatus

LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are made by the

Golgi Apparatus
By fusion of vesicles that bud

off the GA
The sorting system recognizes

address sequences in the

hydrolytic enzymes and directs
them to growing lysosomes
They contain enzymes which

break down/digest proteins,

nucleic acids lipids and complex
sugars

LYSOSOMES
Contents of the lysosome are acidic and thus are

kept in the lysosome to protect the rest of the cell

Lysosomes fuse with vacoules and release the

enzymes in these vacoules which contain any

material that needs to be broken down
Any enzymes needed to go outside of the cell are

transported to the cell surface by special vesicles

called liposomes which are also budded off the
Golgi Apparatus

MOVIE TIME

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5rqbmLiSkpk

Plasma membranes
Are important structures
They separate the contents of cells from their

external environment
They control the exchange of materials such as

nutrients and waste products between the internal

and external environment
Can you name other membrane bound organelles?

Plasma Membrane

http://course1.winona.edu/sberg/ILLUST/memb-mod.jpg

All cells are enclosed in a lipid bilayer called the

plamsma or cell membrane.

Comprises molecules called phospholipids.
Forms a semi-permeable layer between a cell and its
environment. Allows select groups of molecules across
its surface.
Described by the Fluid Mosaic Model

MOVIE TIME

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LKN5sq5dtW4

Composition
Composed of phospholipids
These are lipids which contain a phosphate

group

Composition- Phospholipids
Composed of phospholipids
These are lipids which contain a
phosphate group
A phospholipid comprises a
backbone of the 3 C molecule
glycerol.
Glycerol has threehydroxyl groups
that are responsible for itssolubility
inwater
The glycerol backbone is central to
alllipidsknown astriglycerides.
http://captain-nitrogen.tumblr.com/post/3201048590/hey-fatty

Composition

This arrangement

produces a molecule
with polar hydrophilic
heads and non-polar
hydrophobic tails.

Fluidity of a membrane
http://www.bioteach.ubc.ca/Bio-industry/Inex/

is due to the fatty acids.

Fluidity is affected by

http://www.biologycorner.com/bio3/cell_biology/notes-cell_membrane.html

the number of lipid

molecules present in a
membrane and the
temperature. Lower
temperatures decrease
fluidity.

Composition- Proteins
Plasma membranes contain a
variety of proteins.
Based on The Fluid Mosaic
model of the plasma
membrane, embedded
proteins are allowed to move
laterally.
Proteins are embedded by
covalent bonds to lipids or
weak associations with other
proteins.

http://xtalwebary.blogspot.com/2011/01/membrane-proteins.html

Others have hydrophobic

domains that are enclosed by
the hydrophobic tails of the
phospholipids and hydrophilic
domains that project into the
cytoplasm or externally from
the cell.

Composition-

Proteins

Other proteins are linked

to cytoskeleton
components such as
microfilaments, anchoring
the protein preventing
lateral movement and
creating protein complexes
for specific purposes.
The extracellular surface
of the cell membrane
includes carbohydrate
groups attached to lipids,
(glycolipids), or proteins,
(glycoproteins).

http://xtalwebary.blogspot.com/2011/01/membrane-proteins.html

These short
or
carbohydrates,
Cholesterol is abundant
in the
oligosaccharides,
membranes
of cells,are
it helps
usually
chains
of
15
orthese
maintain the integrity of
fewer sugar molecules.
membranes, forms a plug to
prevent the passage of some
moleculesand plays a role in

cell membrane Function

The cell membrane itself has 4 main functions.
Encloses the cytosol, (holds the cell together).
Facilitates cell signalling.
Cell membrane provides anchorage for the cytoskeleton

This gives shape to the cell and facilitates adhesion of the

cell to neighbouring cells or the extracellular matrix.

Regulates the internal environment of a cell in order to

maintain an internal environment conducive to proper cell

function (homeostasis). This is achieved by controlling
the passage of substances in and out of the cell.

Most of these functions are carried out by membrane

proteins.

Membrane proteins

http://www.biologycorner.com/APbiology/cellular/notes_cell_membrane.html

There are two types of transport proteins, Carrier and Channel proteins.
Carrier-undergo rapid changes in shape
Channel-has fixed shape

Function
Proteins sometimes function as enzymes for

example in the micro-villi on epithelial cells lining

the some parts of the gut and digestive system
Protein sometimes function as antigens they act
as identity markers
Glycolipids have branching side chains that act
in cell to cell recognition
Energy transfer- photosynthesis and respiration
in membranes of the mitochondria and
chloroplast

Notes for additional information

about the plasma membrane

Function

Cell Signalling
Membranes bear cell markers in the form of Oligosaccharides
that give a cell identity allowing distinction between itself and
other cells.
These signals may be:
Glycolipids; oilgosaccharides attached to the phospholipid

molecules of the plasmamembrane)

Glycoproteins; oilgosaccharides attached to the protein molecules
of the plasmamembrane)

Membrane proteins also have a specific and unique shape

that allows them to function as receptors and receptor sites

for attachment appropriate raw materials necessary for
cellular functions.

Cell Adhesion
Cell membrane is responsible for attaching the cell to the
extracellular matrix (non living material that is found outside
the cells) and other cells, so that they group together to form
tissues.
Acting as anchorage for the cell cytoskeleton, the plasma
membrane provides general support for the cell and anchors

Regulation of Cellular Processes

Transport across membrane
The Plasma membrane facilitates the exchange of
materials between a cell and its environment.
Cells transfer synthesised substances, such as
hormones or enzymes into their extracellular
environment through the plasma membrane.
Movement across the cell membrane may be an
active or passive processes.
Active transport requires the use of energy
Passive transport does not require energy
Cell membranes are permeable to lipid soluble
molecules, water, and small uncharged molecules
such as glycerol or Carbon dioxide.
Due to the fatty acid components, small charged
molecules and large molecules cannot pass.
To facilitate these special selective proteins exist
in plasma membranes.

Regulation of Cellular Processes

Transport
There are two types of transport proteins,
Carrier and Channel proteins.
Carrier, charged, hydrophilic molecules that
form water filled pores that when open
allow the passage of ions.
Carrier, bind to the molecule to be
transported, undergo a conformational
change hence depositing the molecule into
the cytoplasm. This function is an active
process and requires energy.

Extracellular matrix
The physical environment created outside of a

cell by the synthesis and deposition of

substances from a cell into its immediate
environment.
Comprises, collagen, other fibres embedded
into proteins and carbohydrate complexes.

Unit 1 Cell Structure and Function

After completing this unit students will be

able to:

1.1 Explain the role of microtubules in centrioles,

cilia and flagella.
1.2 Explain how Golgi apparatus packages
secretions and manufactures lysosomes.
1.3 Describe and explain the fluid mosaic model of
membrane structures.
1.4 Outline the roles of phospholipids, cholesterol,
glycolipids, proteins and glycoproteins in the cell
membrane.

References

http://www.dwm.ks.edu.tw/bio/activelearner/12/ch12c5.html
http://www.nslc.wustl.edu/courses/Bio2960/labs/04Microscopy/index.html
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Image:Phylogenetic_tree.svg
http://thescienceexperts.com/answers/who-discovered-the-mitochondria
http://scienceblogs.com/transcript/2006/07/golgi_maturation.php
http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/insidethecell/chapter2.html
http://biology.about.com/od/cellanatomy/ss/prokaryotes.htm
http://www.ccs.k12.in.us/chsBS/kons/kons/eukaryotic%20cell/cytoplasm_and_its_associated_str.htm
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/Zoology/AnimalPhysiology/Anatomy/AnimalCellStructure/Nu
cleus/Nucleus.htm
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/chloroplasts/chloroplasts.html
http://www.animalport.com/animal-cells.html
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plantcell.html
http://www.cdli.ca/~dpower/cell/mbrane.htm
http://telstar.ote.cmu.edu/biology/downloads/membranes/index.html
Analysis of Biological Development
Klaus Kalthoff. 1996. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Biology 4th edition :
Peter Raven & George Johnson .1996. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Life: The Science of Biology 8th edition: Dave Sadava H Craig Heller Gordon H Orians Bill K Purves Dave
M. 2008. Sinauer Associates, Inc.

REFERENCES
http://www.diffen.com/difference/Cilia_vs_Flagella
http://www.cytochemistry.net/cell-biology/microtub.htm
http://www.cytochemistry.net/cell-biology/cilia.htm
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage

/microtubules-and-filaments-14052932
http://www.ciliopathyalliance.org
/cilia/structure-and-function-of- cilia.html
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage
/the-primary-cilium-an-orphan-organelle-finds-14228249
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centriole
http://biology.about.com/od/mitosisglossary/g/centrioles.htm
http://www.ascb.org/bioeducate/images/FawcettTheCellPDFs/Fa
wcettTheCellChapter12.pdf