Chapter 16

Bulk Forming Processes

(Part 2)

Extrusion & Drawing

EIN 3390 Manufacturing Processes
Summer A, 2011

16.6 Extrusion
Metal

is compressed
and forced to flow
through a shaped
die to form a product
with a constant cross
section
A ram advances from
one end of the die
and causes the
metal to flow
plastically through
the die

Pressing ram

Figure 16-25 Direct extrusion schematic showing

the various equipment components. (Courtesy of
Danieli Wean United, Cranberry Township, PA.)

Extrusion
Definition:

Process of forcing a billet through a die above its

elastic limit, taking shape of the opening.
Purpose:

To reduce its cross-section or to produce a

solid or hollow cross section.
Analogy:

a tube.

Like squeezing toothpaste out of

Extrusion
Extruded

section.

It

products always have a constant cross-

can be a semi-continuous or a batch process.

Extrusions

can be cut into lengths to become

discrete parts like gears, brackets, etc.

billet can also extruded individually in a chamber,

and produces discrete parts.

Typical

products: railings, tubing, structural

shapes, etc.

Typical Extruded Products

Figure 16-26 Typical shapes produced by extrusion. (Left) Aluminum products. (Courtesy of
Aluminum Company of America, Pittsburgh, PA.) (Right) Steel products. (Courtesy of Allegheny
Ludlum Steel Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA.)

Extrusion
Can

be performed at elevated temperatures or

room temperatures, depending on material
ductility.
Commonly extruded materials include aluminum,
magnesium (low yield strength materials),
copper, and lead.
Steels

and nickel based alloys are far more

difficult to extrude (high yield strength materials).

Lubricants

are essential to extrude high

strength alloys to avoid tendency of material to
weld to die walls.

Advantages of Extrusion
Many

shapes can be produced that are

not possible with rolling
No draft is required
Amount of reduction in a single step is
only limited by the equipment, not the
material or the design
Dies are relatively inexpensive
Small quantities of a desired shape can
be produced economically

Extrusion Methods
Methods of extrusion:
Hot extrusion is usually done by either the direct or
indirect methods.
Direct extrusion

Solid ram drives the entire billet to and through a

stationary die
Must provide additional power to overcome friction
between billet surface and die walls

Extrusion Methods
Indirect extrusion
A hollow ram pushes the die back through a
stationary, confined billet
No relative motion and no friction
between billet and die walls.
Lower forces required, can extrude longer
billets.
More complex process, more expensive
equipment required.

Extrusion Methods

Figure 16-27 Direct and indirect extrusion. In direct extrusion, the ram and billet both
move and friction between the billet and the chamber opposes forward motion. For
indirect extrusion, the billet is stationary. There is no billet-chamber friction, since
there is no relative motion.

Variables in Extrusion
Die

Angle

Extrusion

Ratio R (A0 / Af): where A0 and

Af are billet and extruded product areas.

Billet

Temperature

Ram

Velocity

Type

of Lubricant used.

Variables in Extrusion

Extrusion
Parameters

shape:

defining the extruded

CCD (Circumscribing Diameter):

Diameter of the smallest circle into which the
extruded cross section can fit.
Shape Factor = Perimeter / Cross-Area:
the larger the shape factor, the more complex
the part.

Variables in Direct Extrusion

Fig : Process variables in
direct extrusion. The die
angle, reduction in crosssection, extrusion speed,
billet temperature, and
lubrication all affect the
extrusion pressure.

Fig : Method of determining

the circumscribing-circle
diameter (CCD) of an
extruded cross-section.

Extrusion

Parameters

shape

defining the extruded

Example of Shape Factors between circle and square

shapes:
Shape factor of a circle = ( .D)/ (0.25 .D2) = 4/D, and
shape factor of square = 4 a/a2 =4/a .
If areas of the circle and the square are the same: Ac = As ,
then
so

a2 = ( .D2)/4 ,
a = 0.8862D, or D = 1.1284a

shape factor of square = 4/a = 4/(0.8862D) =

= 1.1884 of shape factor of circle

Extrusion

Parameters defining the extruded shape:

Reduction Ratio R = Ab/Ap
Where, Ab cross section area of starting billet stock
Ap across section area of extruded product
For a cylinder-to-cylinder extrusion,
the area of starting cylinder: Ab = ( .Db2)/4 , and
the area of extruded cylinder: Ap = ( .Dp2)/4 .
R = Ab/Ap = (0.25 .Db2)/ (0.25 .Dp2) = (Db/Dp)2
if (Db/Dp) = 4, then R = 16.
Considering the volume of billet and the volume of extruted
product is the same: Vb = Vp, we have AbLb = ApLp , and
Lp/Lp = Ab/Ap = R

Extrusion Practices
Usually
CCD

billets less than 25 in length.

ranges from to 40.

Typical

values for R range between 10 and 100.

Ram

speeds up to 100 ft/min, with lower

speeds for the most common extruded alloys.

Dimensional

tolerances (+/- 0.01 to +/- 0.1)

increase with cross section.

Extrusion Force
Factors for determining extrusion force:
billet strength, extrusion ratio, friction
between billet and die surfaces,
temperature, and extrusion speed.

Estimation

of Force required:
F

= A0 k ln (A0/Af)

k = extrusion constant
Ao, Af billet and extruded product cross section areas

Extrusion Constant K:

Fig : Extrusion
constant k for
various
metals at
different
temperatures

Example for calculation

Extrusion Force
Given:

Find:
Assumptions:
Solution:

F = (2.5)

a 70-30 brass round billet is

extruded at 1,250 deg. F. Billet
diam. = 5. Extrusion Diam. = 2.
Required force.
friction is negligible.
Find k from Fig. 15.6 for 70-30
brass : 30,000 psi at 1,250 deg. F.
(30,000) ln [( (2.5) 2) / ( (1.0) 2)]

= 1.08 x 106 lb = 490 tons.

Forces in Extrusion
Lubrication

is

important to
reduce friction
and act as a heat
barrier
Metal flow in
extrusion
Flow can be complex
Surface cracks,
interior cracks and
flow-related cracks
need to be monitored
Process control is
important

Figure 16-28 Diagram of the ram force versus ram

position for both direct and indirect extrusion of the
same product. The area under the curve corresponds
to the amount of work (force x distance)
performed. The difference between the two curves is
attributed to billet-chamber friction.

Lubrication
An

acceptable lubricant is expected to

1) reduce friction, and
2) act as a barrier to heat transfer at all
stages of the process.

Metal Flow
Quite

complex.
Impact quality and mechanical properties of
product: must not overlook to prevent defects.
Extruded products have elongated grain
structure.
Metal at center passes through die w/little
distortion
Metal near surface undergoes considerable
shearing.
Friction between moving billet and stationary
chamber walls impedes surface flow.
Result is deformation pattern

Extrusion of Hollow Shapes

Mandrels

may
be used to
produce hollow
shapes or
shapes with
multiple
longitudinal
cavities

Figure 16-30 Two methods of extruding hollow shapes using internal mandrels. In part (a) the
mandrel and ram have independent motions; in part (b) they move as a single unit.

Extrusion Methods
In

Hydrostatic Extrusion:

The chamber, which is larger than the billet, is

filled with a fluid.
The fluid is compressed with the ram and
pushes the billet forward.
Benefit: no friction to overcome along sides of
chamber.

Hydrostatic Extrusion

High-pressure fluid
surrounds the
workpiece and applies
the force to execute
extrusion
Billet-chamber
friction is
eliminated
High efficiency
process
Temperatures are
limited because the
fluid acts as a heat sink
Seals must be
designed to keep the
fluid from leaking

Figure 16-32 Comparison of conventional (left)

and hydrostatic (right) extrusion. Note the
addition of the pressurizing fluid and the O-ring
and miter-ring seals on both the die and ram.

Extrusion can be Hot or Cold

Hot

Extrusion
Takes place at elevated temperatures.
Used in metals that have low ductility at room
temperature.
Need to pre-heat dies to prolong die life and reduce
billet cooling.
Hot working tends to develop an oxide film on the
outside of the work unless done in an inert
environment.
Solution:
place smaller-diameter dummy block ahead of ram before
the billet. A layer of oxidized material is then left in the
chamber, and is later removed and final part is free of oxides.

Extrusion can be Hot or Cold

Cold

Extrusion (also know as Impact

Extrusion)
Designated as cold when combined with other forging
operations.
Slugs having less than 1.5 diam. are sheared / ends
ground; larger slugs are machined.
Punch descends on a blank, which is extruded
backward.
Slug dimensions and material, as well as lubrication are
key variables.
Diameters up to 6 and thin walls can be made.
Collapsible tubes can be made this way (toothpaste
tubes).

Advantages Cold vs. Hot

Extrusion
Cold:

Better mechanical properties due to workhardening.

Good dimensional tolerances & surface finish.
No need to heat billet.
Competitive production rates & costs.
Hot:

Larger variety of materials.

Less forces required.
Better material flow.

Guidelines for Die Design

Avoid

sharp corners

Have

similarly sized voids if possible.

Have

even thickness in walls if possible.

Have

even flow.

Defects in Extrusions
Surface

Cracking / Tearing

Occurs with high friction or speed.

Can also occur with sticking of billet material on die
land.
Material sticks, pressure increases, product stops
and starts to move again.
This produces circumferential cracks on surface,
similar to a bamboo stem.

Defects in Extrusions
Internal

Cracking

Center of extrusion tends to develop cracks of

various shapes.
Center, center-burst, and arrowhead
Center cracking:
Increases with increasing die angle.
Increases with impurities.
Decreases with increasing R and friction.

16.7 Wire, Rod, and Tube Drawing

Reduce

the cross section of a material

by pulling it through a die
Similar to extrusion, but the force is
tensile

Figure 16-36 Cold-drawing smaller tubing

Figure 16-34 Schematic drawing of the rod-or bar- from larger tubing. The die sets the outer
drawing process.
dimension while the stationary mandrel sizes
the inner diameter.

Drawing
Definition

Cross section of a round rod / wire is

reduced by pulling it through a die.
Variables:

Die Angle, Extrusion Ratio R (A0 / Af) ,

Friction between die and workpiece,
drawing speed.
There is an optimum angle at which the
drawing force is minimum for a given
diameter reduction and friction parameter.

Drawing
Estimation

of Drawing Force required:

F = Yavg Af ln (A0/Af)
Yavg

average true stress of material in

the die gap.
=

Assumptions:

no friction.

Drawing
Work

has to be done to overcome friction.

Force increases with increasing friction.
Cannot
increase force too much, or
material will reach yield stress.
Maximum reduction in cross-sectional area
per pass = 63%. In general, the reduction in
area is between - 50%.
To produce a desired size or shape, multiple
draws may be required through a series of
progressively
smaller
dies.
Intermediate
annealing may also be required to restore
ductility and enable further deformation.

Drawing Die Design

Die

angles range from 6 to 15

degrees.
Two angles are typically present in a
die:
Entering angle
Approach angle
Bearing

Surface

diameter.
Back relief angle

(land):

sets

final

Figure 16-39 Cross section

through a typical carbide
wire-drawing die showing the
characteristic regions of the
contour.

Figure 16-40 Schematic of a multistation synchronized wire-drawing machine. To prevent

accumulation or breakage, it is necessary to ensure that the same volume of material passes
through each station in a given time. The loops around the sheaves between the stations use wire
tensions and feedback electronics to provide the necessary speed control.

Figure 16-39 Cross section

through a typical carbide
wire-drawing die showing the
characteristic regions of the
contour.

Figure 16-40 Schematic of a multistation synchronized wire-drawing machine. To prevent

accumulation or breakage, it is necessary to ensure that the same volume of material passes
through each station in a given time. The loops around the sheaves between the stations use wire
tensions and feedback electronics to provide the necessary speed control.

Defects in Drawing
Center

cracking.
Seams (folds in the material)
Residual stresses in cold-drawn
products.
If % reduction is small:
(Compressive at surface / Tensile at Center)
If

% reduction is larger, opposite

occurs:
(not desirable- can cause stress corrosion
cracking.)

Tube and Wire Drawing

Tube

sinking does
not use a mandrel
Internal diameter
precision is sacrificed
for cost and a floating
plug is used

Figure 16-38 Schematic of wire drawing with a

rotating draw block. The rotating motor on the
draw block provides a continuous pull on the
incoming wire.

Figure 16-37 (Above) Tube drawing with

a floating plug.

16.8 Cold Forming and Impact

Extrusion
Slugs

of material are
squeezed into or
extruded from shaped
die cavities to produce
finished parts of
precise shape and size

Figure 16-46 Cold-forming sequence involving

cutoff, squaring, two extrusions, an upset, and a
trimming operation. Also shown are the finished
part and the trimmed scrap. (Courtesy of National
Machinery Co., Tiffin, OH.)

16.8 Cold Forming and Impact

Extrusion
Slugs

of material are
squeezed into or
extruded from shaped
die cavities to produce
finished parts of
precise shape and size

Figure 16-46 Cold-forming sequence involving

cutoff, squaring, two extrusions, an upset, and a
trimming operation. Also shown are the finished
part and the trimmed scrap. (Courtesy of National
Machinery Co., Tiffin, OH.)

Impact Extrusion
A

metal slug is
positioned in a die
cavity where it is
struck by a single
blow
Metal may flow
forward, backward
or some combination
The punch controls
the inside shape
while the die controls
the exterior shape
Figure 16-43 Backward and forward extrusion
with open and closed dies.

Cold Extrusion
Figure 16-44
(a) Reverse
(b) forward
(c) combined
forms of cold
extrusion.
(Courtesy the
Aluminum
Association,
Arlington, VA.)

Figure 16-45
(Right) Steps in
the forming of a
bolt by cold
extrusion, cold
heading, and
thread rolling.
(Courtesy of
National
Machinery Co.
Tiffin, OH.)

Summary
There

are a variety of bulk deformation

processes
The main processes are rolling, forging,
extrusion, and drawing
Each has limits and advantages as to its
capabilities
The correct process depends on the
desired shape, surface finish,
quantity, etc.

HW (Not required to turn in)

Review questions (page 418):
40, 42, 45, 51
Problems (page 418 419):
2: a, b, c, d