Physical

Geography
Ninth Edition

Chapter 13: Earth Structure, Earth

Materials, and Plate Tectonics
Robert E. Gabler
James. F. Petersen
L. Michael Trapasso
Dorothy Sack

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Earth Structure, Earth Materials, and

Plate Tectonics

13.1 Earths Planetary Structure

Earths radius is 6400 km
(4000 miles)
Structure and
composition deduced by
remote sensing
Seismic waves
Seismograph
P (primary) waves
S (secondary) waves

13.1 Earths Planetary Structure

Seismic Waves
Earths Internal Structure (crust, mantle, outer
core, inner core)

13.1 Earths Planetary Structure

Earths Core
1/3 of Earths mass
Enormous pressure
Iron and nickel
Inner core: Solid
Outer core: molten
lava

13.1 Earths Planetary Structure

Earths Mantle
Largest of interior zones
Solid rocky material
Less dense than core
Plastic solid
Outermost layer
behaves like an elastic
solid (rigid)
Lithosphere (upper
most mantle and crust)

13.1 Earths Planetary Structure

Earths Mantle
Asthenosphere:
upper mantle
Tectonic forces come
from movement of
Asthenosphere
Moho discontinuity

13.1 Earths Planetary Structure

Earths Crust
1% of Earths mass
Exterior of lithosphere
Density
Oceanic crust
(basaltic)
Continental crust
(granitic)

13.2 Minerals and Rocks

Minerals
Building blocks of rocks
Inorganic
Naturally occurring

Rock
Aggregate (collection) of
minerals or an aggregate
of the same mineral

Most Common Elements

13.2 Minerals and Rocks

Minerals
Distinct and recognizable
characteristics

Hardness
Luster
Cleavage
Tendency to fracture
Specific gravity
Geometric shapes

Chemical Composition
Silicon, oxygen, and carbon
Silicates

13.2 Minerals and Rocks

Rocks
Building material
Weathered and eroded
Bedrock
Regolith
Outcrop
3 Major Categories of Rocks
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic

13.2 Minerals and Rocks

Igneous Rocks
Molten rock material cools
and solidifies
Magma (below surface)
Lava (at surface)
2 Major categories of
Igneous:
Extrusive
Intrusive

13.2 Minerals and Rocks

Extrusive
Extrusive igneous rock
(volcanic rock): solidifies at
surface
Pyroclastics (fine
fragments)

Intrusive
Intrusive igneous rock:
molten magma solidifies
(freezes)
Also called plutonic rock

13.2 Minerals and Rocks

Chemical Composition
of Igneous
Felsic, Mafic, Dionite,
Andesite

Extrusive:
Basalt, Andesite,
Rhyolite

Intrusive:
Gabbro, Diorite,
Granite

13.2 Minerals and Rocks

Geometric patterns
Columnar joints
Devils Postpile, CA and Devil's Tower, WY

13.2 Minerals and Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks
Accumulated
sediment
Unconsolidated,
minerals that have
been eroded,
transported and
deposited
Clasts
Clastic

13.2 Minerals and Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks
Organic sedimentary
Coal
Limestone

Chemical sedimentary
rocks
Dolomite

13.2 Minerals and Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks
Stratification
Strata
Bedding planes
Unconformity
Cross bedding
Fins

13.2 Minerals and Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks
Changed form due to
enormous heat and
pressure
Harder
Foliation
Two major Types:
Foliated (presence of
platy or wavy surfaces)
Nonfoliated (absence of
platy or wavy surfaces)

13.2 Minerals and Rocks

Metamorphic
Rocks
Schist
Gneiss
Marble

13.2 Minerals and Rocks

Rock Cycle
Q: What conditions are necessary to change igneous to
metamorphic?

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory

Continental Drift
Plate Tectonics
Catastrophism
Uniformitarian

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Continental Drift
Idea that continents and
other landmasses have
shifted
Wegener
Pangaea
Gondwana
Laurasia
Q: How has continental
movement affected the
climates of landmasses?

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Supporting Evidence
for Continental Drift
Radioactive dating
Paleomagnetism
Reconstructed locations
of continents
200 mya continents
joined together

Similar fossil reptiles

and plants

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Supporting Evidence
for Continental Drift
Glaciation
Rocks of ancient
mountain ranges

Paleogeographic
reconstruction

13.4 Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonics
Modern theory to explain
movement of continents
Lithosphere is broken
Plates move in distinct
and discrete units
Plates Diverge, converge,
or move laterally
7 major plates

13.4 Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonics
Q: Does every lithospheric plate include a continent?

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Seafloor Spreading and
Convection Currents
Undersea mapping
Mid-ocean ridges
Parallel bands of matching
magnetic patterns
Rocks on ocean floor very
young!
Oldest rocks lie next to
continents

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Seafloor Spreading and Convection Currents

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Seafloor Spreading
Polarity reversals

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Seafloor
Spreading
Convection
Q: Why is plate
tectonics a better
name than
continental drift for
the lateral
movement of
Earths solid outer
shell?

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Tectonic Plate Movement
Pulling apart, pushing together, or sliding alongside

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Plate Divergence
(pulling apart)
Seafloor spreading
Shallow earthquakes
Creates new ridges
Most occur near
oceanic ridges (e.g.
Iceland)

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Plate Divergence
(pulling apart)
Rift Valley, Africa

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Plate Convergence
(pushing together)
Denser plate forced
under lighter plate
This is known as
subduction
Examples:
Nazca Plate subducts
beneath South
America
Japan

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Plate Convergence
Deep ocean trenches
Mountain ranges
(ocean-continent)
Cascades
Andes

Islands (ocean-ocean)
Aleutians
Kuriles

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Plate Convergence
Larger Landmasses
(continent-continent)
Continental Collision
Himalayas
Tibetan Plateau

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Transform Movement
Plates slide pass each
other
Examples
San Andreas Fault, CA
Ocean plates

13.3 Continents in Motion: The Search

for a Unifying Theory
Hot Spots
Almost stationary molten masses that rise to
surface
Hawaiian Islands

13.4 Growth of Continents

Origin of continents
still debated
Continental shields
(ancient crystalline
rock)
Example: Canadian
Shield
Accretion
Microplate terranes

13.4 Growth of Continents

13.5 Paleogeography
Paleogeography
Reconstruct the past
environment of a
geographical region
based on geologic
and climate evidence
Earth History
Eras
Periods
Epochs

13.5 Paleogeography
Q: How has the environment at the location where
you live changes through geologic time?

Physical Geography

End of Chapter 13: Earth Structure,

Earth Materials, and Plate Tectonics