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1. Introduction
Problems involving vibrations or oscillations occur frequently in physics
and engineering. You can think of examples you have already met: a vibrating
tuning fork, a pendulum, a weight attached to a spring, water waves, sound waves,
alternating electric currents, etc. In addition, there are many more examples which
you will meet as you continue to study physics. On the other hand, Some of them
for example, heat conduction, electric and magnetic fields, light do not appear
in elementary work to have anything oscillatory about them, but will turn out in
your advanced work to involve the sine and cosines which are used in describing
simple harmonic motion and wave motion.
It is why we learn how to expand a certain function with Fourier series
consisting of infinite sines and cosines.
dz d
( Ae it ) Aie it Ai (cos t i sin t )
Velocity:
dt dt
imaginary part velocity of Q
3) Periodic function ( )
i) Functional form of the simple harmonic motion:
A sin t or A cos t , A sin(t )
Displacement
Time
ii) Graph
a. Time (simple harmonic motion)
period: T
Displacement
Time
amplitude
y A sin t
dy
A cos t B cos t
dt
1 dy
m
Kinetic energy:
2 dt
1
mB 2 cos 2 t
2
Total energy
1
2
2 2
2 2
(kinetic+ potential = max of kinetic E) = mB A A f
2
6
b. Distance (wave)
y A sin
2x
y A sin
2
2v
2
( x vt ) A sin
x
t
distance
Wavelength:
cf . T
1
, f
v
T
f ( x p) f ( x)
p : period (or wavelength)
1
sin x sin 2 x sin 3x
3
Intensity
10
15
20
10
15
20
sin x
0
10
15
20
1
sin x sin 2 x
2
0
10
10
15
15
20
20
1
sin x sin 2 x sin 3x
3
1
sin x sin 2 x sin 3x sin 10 x
10
10
15
20
10
ba
n
n
nx
When nx b a, n , & x 0, (concept of integration)
Average of
f ( x) on (a, b)
f ( x)dx
ba
11
sin
nx cos 2 nx dx dx 2
1
sin
nxdx
cos 2 nxdx
1
2
1 cos 2 x
1 cos 2 x
, cos 2 x
2
2
12
Graph of sin2 nx
1.0
0.5
sin2x
0.0
-0.5
1.0
0.5
sin22x
0.0
-0.5
1.0
0.5
sin23x
0.0
-0.5
1.0
sin24x
0.5
0.0
-0.5
1.0
sin25x
0.5
0.0
-0.5
13
14
1
a0 a1 cos x a2 cos 2 x a3 cos 3 x
2
b1 sin x b2 sin 2 x b3 sin 3 x ,
15
In order to find formulas for an and bn, we need the following integrals on (-, )
1) Average value of sin mx cos nx (over a period) (m, n : integer)
1
2
1
2
1
2 sin m n x sin m n x dx 0
cf.
sin nx dx 0
(n : integer)
1
sin sin
2
1
cos sin sin sin
2
1
cos cos cos cos
2
1
sin sin cos cos
2
sin cos
16
0, m n
1
2
cf.
1
cos m n x cos m n x dx 1 , m n 0
2
2
0, m n 0
cos nx dx 0,
for interger n 0.
1
sin sin
2
1
cos sin sin sin
2
1
cos cos cos cos
2
1
sin sin cos cos
2
sin cos
17
1
2
0, m n
1
2
1
1
cos
m
n
x
cos
m
n
x
dx
, mn0
2
2
1, m n 0
1
sin sin
2
1
cos sin sin sin
2
1
cos cos cos cos
2
1
sin sin cos cos
2
sin cos
18
Using the above integrals, we can find coefficients of Fourier series by calculating
the average value.
f ( x)
1
a0 a1 cos x a2 cos 2 x a3 cos 3 x
2
b1 sin x b2 sin 2 x b3 sin 3 x ,
a 1
f ( x)dx 0
2 2
1
b1
2
1
dx
a
1
1
cos
xdx
a
2
1
sin
xdx
b
2
cos 2 xdx
sin 2 xdx
1
f ( x)dx a0
19
i-2) To find a_1, we multiply cos x (n=1) and calculate the average on (-,).
1
1
2
a0 1
1
1
f ( x) cos xdx
cos
xdx
a
cos
x
cos
xdx
a
1
2
2 2
2
2
1
1
b1
sin
x
cos
xdx
b
sin 2 x cos xdx
2
2
2
cos x
1
f ( x) cos xdx a1.
0, m n
cf .
1
2
1
, mn0
2
1, m n 0
20
i-3) To find a_2, we multiply cos 2x (n=2) and calculate the average on (-,).
1
1
2
a0 1
1
1
f ( x) cos 2 xdx
cos
2
xdx
a
cos
x
cos
2
dx
a
1
2
2 2
2
2
1
1
b1
sin
x
cos
2
xdx
b
sin 2 x cos 2 xdx
2
2
2
cos 2 x
cos 2 2 xdx
1
f ( x) cos 2 xdx a2 .
0, m n
cf .
1
2
1
, mn0
2
1, m n 0
21
i-4) To find a_n, we multiply cos nx and calculate the average on (-,).
1
1
2
cos nx
1
2
f ( x) cos nxdx an
cos
nxdx
2
1
b1
sin x cos nxdx
1
f ( x) cos nxdx an .
0, m n
cf .
1
2
1
, mn0
2
1, m n 0
22
ii-1) To find b_1 and b_n, (cf. n=0 term is zero), we multiply the sin x (n=1) or
sin nx and calculate the average on (-,).
1
1
2
f ( x) sin xdx
b1
1
2
a0 1
2 2
sin xdx a1
sin 2 xdx b2
1
2
1
2
cos x sin dx a2
1
2
sin nx
1
f ( x) sin xdx b1.
2
Similarly,
1
f ( x) sin nxdx bn
0, m n
cf .
1
2
1
, mn0
2
0, m n 0
23
1
a0 a1 cos x a2 cos 2 x a3 cos 3 x
2
b1 sin x b2 sin 2 x b3 sin 3 x .
an
1
f x cos nxdx,
bn
1
f x sin nxdx
24
0, x 0,
f ( x)
1, 0 x .
Example 1.
an
1
f ( x) cos nxdx
0 cos nxdx
1 cos nxdx
1 1
sin nx 0
n
0
1
cos nxdx
0
1
1
for n 0
for n 0.
25
bn
1
f ( x) sin nxdx
1
1 cos nx
sin nxdx
0
n
0
n
f ( x)
1
(1) n 1
n
for even n
for odd n.
.
2 1
3
5
26
0, x 0,
1, 0 x .
f ( x)
f ( x)
.
2 1
3
5
9% overshoot
: Gibbs phenomenon
27
Example 2.
- case i
1
g x 2 f x 1
f ( x)
.
2 1
3
5
1
3
5
- case ii
1
h x f x
2
2
1
3
5
2 1
3
5
28
29
einx e inx
cos nx
.
2
Using these relations, we can get a series of terms of the forms e^inx and e^inx from the forms of sin nx and cos nx.
30
f ( x)
1
a0 a1 cos x a2 cos 2 x a3 cos 3 x
2
b1 sin x b2 sin 2 x b3 sin 3 x
eix e ix
e 2ix e 2ix
e3ix e 3ix
1
a2
a3
a0 a1
2
2
2
2
eix e ix
e 2ix e 2ix
e3ix e 3ix
b2
b3
b1
2i
2i
2i
1
a b
a b
a b
a b
a0 1 1 eix 1 1 e ix 2 2 e 2ix 2 2 e 2ix
2
2 2i
2 2i
2 2i
2 2i
c e
inx
31
f ( x)
c e
Here,
inx
cn
1
2
f ( x)e inx dx
f ( x) cos nxdx,
bn
f ( x) sin nxdx
32
Example.
0, x 0,
1, 0 x .
f ( x)
inx
1
0 dx
2
e inx 1 dx
1
,
1
in
e
1 in
in
0,
0
1
1
1
c0
f
dx
dx
.
2
2 0
2
1 e inx
2 in
1
cn
2
f ( x )e
inx
dx
n odd
n even 0,
33
Then,
f ( x) cn e
inx
1 1
2 i
1 e ix e 3ix e 5ix
3
5
5
1
i 1 3
sin x sin 3 x
2
2i
3
2i
3
The same with the results of Fourier series with sines and cosines!!
34
35
8. Other intervals ( )
1) (-, ) and (0, 2 ).
- Same Fourier coefficients for the interval (-, ) and (0, 2 ).
1
1 2
an f ( x) cos nxdx f ( x) cos nxdx
0
1
1 2
bn f ( x) sin nxdx f ( x) sin nxdx
0
1
1 2
inx
cn
f ( x)e dx
f ( x)e inx dx
2
2 0
(Proof)
Here,
f ( x) cos nxdx
f ( x) cos nxdx
f ( x) cos nxdx
f ( x) cos nxdx
36
(Caution)
37
2) period 2 vs. 2l
- Other period 2l [(0, 2l) or (-l, l)], not 2 [(0, 2) ]
sin nx 2
nx
nx inx / l
sin
(or cos
,e
) 2l
l
l
1
1 l
2
2l l
38
2
l
l
a0
nx
nx
an cos
bn sin
.
2
l
l
1
f ( x)
1 l
nx
an f ( x) cos
dx,
l l
l
b1 sin
x
2x
b2 sin
l
l
1 l
nx
bn f ( x) sin
dx.
l l
l
ii) complex
f ( x) c n einx / l .
cn
1 l
inx / l
f
(
x
)
e
dx.
l
2l
39
Example.
0, 0 x l ,
f ( x)
1, l x 2l
- period 2l
f
x
e
dx
0
2l
1 l
1 2l
0 dx 1 e inx / l dx
2l 0
2l l
cn
1 e inx / l
2l in / l
2l
e 2in e in
2in
0,
1 e in
2in
even n 0,
1
,
in
odd n,
c0
1 2l
1
dx
l
2l
2
40
Then,
1 1 ix / l
1
1
e
e ix / l e 3ix / l e 3ix / l
2 i
3
3
1 2
x 1
3x
sin sin
.
2
l 3
l
f ( x)
41
f ( x) is odd if f ( x) f ( x)
42
1 x x 1 x x
(e e ) (e e ) cosh x (even) sinh x (odd)
2
2
43
2) Integration
Integral over symmetric intervals like (-, ) or (-l, l)
f ( x)dx
if f ( x) is odd,
l
2 0 f ( x)dx if f ( x) is even.
44
45
3) Fourier series
a0
nx
nx
f ( x) an cos
bn sin
2
l
l
1
- If f(x) is even,
the terms in Fourier series should be even. b_n should be zero.
- If f(x) is odd,
the terms in Fourier series should be odd. a_n should be zero.
an 0
If f ( x) is odd,
2 l
nx
b
f
(
x
)
sin
dx.
n l 0
l
2 l
nx
f
(
x
)
cos
dx,
0
If f ( x) is even,
l
l
bn 0.
an
46
47
Example
0 x
0,
1
2
f ( x)
1,
1
2
x 1
48
If f ( x) is odd,
2 l
nx
b
f
(
x
)
sin
dx.
n l 0
l
1/ 2
2 1
bn f ( x) sin nxdx 2 sin nxdx
0
l 0
2
2
n
1/ 2
cos nx 0
cos
1 ,
n
n
2
cos
1
,
2
,
1
,
0
,
for
n
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
,
b1
2
4
2
0
, b2
, b3
, b4
,
2
3
4
f ( x)
2
2 sin 2x sin 3x sin 5x 2 sin 6x
sin
2
3
5
6
49
0
If f ( x) is even,
l
l
bn 0.
an
1/ 2
a 0 2 f ( x)dx 2 dx 1,
2
2
n
1/ 2
sin nx 0
sin
.
0
n
n
2
1 2 cos x cos 3x cos 5x
f ( x)
2
1
3
5
an 2 f ( x) cos nxdx
50
1/ 2
cn f ( x)e 2inx dx
e 2inx dx
1
1 e
1 ( 1)
in ,
2in
2in
0,
in
c0
1/ 2
n odd,
n even.
dx 12 .
1 1 2in
(e e 2in 13 e 6in 13 e 6in )
2 i
1 2
sin 6x
(sin 2x
).
2
3
f ( x)
51
ii) sine-cosine
1
1/ 2
a0 2 f ( x )dx 2 dx 1
1/ 2
an 2 cos 2nxdx 0.
0
1/ 2
b1
2
,
b 2 0,
1
1
(1 cos n )
1 (1) n .
n
n
2
b3
, b 4 0,
3
bn 2 sin 2nxdx
52
- odd function
- period = 1/262
1 / 524
bn 2(524)
p (t )
1
4
2 15
n
7
1 cos n
cos
n
8
2
8
1
2
3
5
6
7
53
10
relative
=
intensity
225
1/9
1/25
25
1/49
1/81
54
f ( x) a0 an cos nx bn sin nx
1
2
Average of f ( x)
2
1
2
f
(
x
)
dx ?
Hint
1) average of (1/2a_0)^2 = (1/2a_0)^2
2) average of (a_n cos nx)^2) = a_n^2* 1/2
3) average of (b_n sin nx)^2 = b_n^2 * 1/2.
4) average of all cross product terms, a_n*b_m*cos nx*sin mx, = 0.
Average of f ( x) a0
2
1
2
1 2 1 2
an bn
2 1
2 1
Similarly, average of f ( x) cn
2
f x cn e
inx / l
1 l
cn f x e inx / l dx
2l l
f x g e d ,
i x
1
g
2
f x e ix dx.
(Fourier transform)
d ,
n
,
l
1 l
1
dx
2l l
2
57
f x cn ei n x , (
cn
n , )
l
l
1 l
i n x
f
e
dx
2l l
2
f x
2
f u e i n u du ei n x
f ue
i n x u
1
du
2
i n x u
,
where
F
f
u
e
du.
n
n
F f u ei x u du
l
f x
1
2
1
g
2
F d
f xe
ix
1
2
1
dx
2
f u ei x u dud
1
2
e ix d
f u e iu du.
f u e iu du ,
f x g eix d .
58
f x cos x i sin x dx
For odd f x ,
1
g
2
i
f x i sin x dx
f x sin xdx.
0
g g , odd g .
Similarly,
f x g e dx 2i g sin xd .
i x
59
2
f s x sin xdx.
2
g c cos xd ,
2
gc x
f c x cos xdx.
60
Example 1.
1, 1 x 1,
f x
0, x 1,
1
2
f x e ix dx
1 e i x
i x
1e dx 2 i
1
1 e i ei sin
.
2i
sin ix
1 sin cos x i sin x
2 sin cos x
e dx
dx
d
f x
61
Example 2.
1, 1 x 1,
f x
0, x 1,
sin cos x
f
x
2
0
For x 0,
for x 1,
for x 1
for x 1.
sin
d .
62
~
f1 x eix dx.
~ g d 1
g
1 2
2
1
2
~
f1 x dx
i x
~ g a d 1
g
1 2
2
1
g
e
d
~
ix
f
x
e
dx g 2 d .
1
1
g d
2
2
~
f1 x f 2 x dx
~
f1 x f 2 x dx.
f x dx.
2
cf.
average of f ( x) cn
2
63
64
- Michelson interferometer
65
HW
Chapter 7
2-3, 9, 13, 18 (G1)
5-1, 7 (G2)
7-1 (G3)
9-1,6,7 (G4)
66