PORTLAND

CEMENT
Binding material used in construction and
engineering, often called hydraulic cement,
typically made by heating a mixture of
limestone and clay until it almost fuses and
then grinding it to a fine powder. When mixed
with water, the silicates and aluminates in
the cement undergo a chemical reaction; the
resulting hardened mass is then impervious
to water. It may also be mixed with water and
aggregates (crushed stone, sand, and gravel)

BRIEF HISTORY OF CEMENT

The word "cement" traces to the
Romans, who used the term opus
caementicium to describe masonry
resembling modern concrete that was
made from crushed rock with burnt lime
as binder. The volcanic ash and
pulverized brick additives that were
added to the burnt lime to obtain a
hydraulic binder were later referred to as

PORTLAND CEMENT

The basic ingredient of concrete, is a

closely controlled chemical combination of
calcium, silicon, aluminum, iron and small
amounts of other ingredients to which
gypsum is added in the final grinding
process. Lime and silica make up about
85% of the mass.
A hydraulic cement produced by
pulverizing clinker consisting essentially of
hydraulic calcium silicates, usually

HISTORY OF PORTLAND
CEMENT

 Portland cement was developed

from natural cements made in
Britain beginning in the middle of
the 18th century. Its name is derived
from its similarity to
Portland stone, a type of building
stone quarried on the
Isle of Portland in Dorset, England

 The development of Portland

cement began in 1756 when
John Smeaton experimented with
combinations of different limestones
and additives including trass and
pozzolanas relating to the planned
construction of a lighthouse now
known as Smeaton's Tower.

In the late 18th century,

Roman cement was
developed and patented in
1796 by James Parker.

 In 1811 James Frost produced a

cement he called British
cement.

 In 1818, French engineer Louis

Vicat invented an artificial
hydraulic lime considered the
"principal forerunner" of Portland
cement.

 Portland cement was used by

Joseph Aspdin in his cement patent
in 1824. However, Aspdins' cement
was nothing like modern Portland
cement, but was a first step in the
development of modern Portland
cement, called a 'protoPortland
cement'.

 In 1843, Aspdin's son, William

Aspdin improved their cement,
which was initially called "Patent
Portland cement", although he had
no actual patent. He left his fathers
company and in his cement
manufacturing apparently
accidentally produced

The Association of German

Cement Manufacturers
issued a standard on Portland
cement in 1878.

RAW MATERIALS

Silica
Calcium
Alumina
Iron

MANUFACTURE OF
PORTLAND CEMENT

Crushing

This is the first step in the

manufacture of Portland Cement.
Jaw crushers of various sizes are
employed for the crushing purpose.
Raw materials are crushed by
crushers till the size of the raw
material reduces to of an inch.

Mixing (Wet Process) Wet

process
Calcareous materials are crushed, powdered
and stored in bins.
Argillaceous materials is mixed with water
and washed. This removes any adhering
organic impurities.
llaceous materials are mixed in proper
proportions to get a slurry.
Chemical composition is analyzed and
corrected if necessary by addition of the

Mixing (Dry Process) Dry process

Hard raw materials like cement rock
or blast furnace slag are first crushed
to 50mm pieces in ball mill, then
dried and stored.
Crushing is done by gyratory
crushers and drying is done by rotary
driers.
Separate powdered ingredients are

Grinding (Ball Mill and Tube Mill)

Ball Mill
Consists of cast iron drum containing iron and
steel balls of different sizes. The principle used
in ball mill s impact and shear produced by
large no. of tumbling and rolling balls.
Tube Mill
Ball mill grinding is followed by tube mill
grinding. Tube mill is conical at the discharge
end with separate inlet and outlet.

Storage of Ground Materials

The ground materials containing 30
40% of water is stored in separate
tanks equipped with agitators.
This step is followed by process of
burning.

Burning

Slurry is burnt in rotary klin where actual chemical

changes takes place.
Klin is long steel cylinder 30-40 meter in length, 24 meter in diameter, lined by refractory bricks. It
is inclined at gradient of 0.5-0.75 inch and can be
rotated at the desired speed.
The material is introduced in the klin from the
upper end as the klin rotates material passes
slowly towards the lower end
Klin is heated by burning pulverized coal or oil and

KILN
Pyroprocessing device used
to raise materials to a high
temperature in a
continuous process.

CLINKER
The solid material produced
by the cement kiln stage
that has sintered into
lumps or nodules, typically
of diameter 3-25 mm

Grinding/Mixing With Agents

Clinkers are finally grinded in ball mill
and tube mill to a fine powder. Additives
added are as follows.
Retarders:
Gypsum or Plaster of Paris acts as
retarder to prevent quick setting. After
initial setting gypsum retards the
dissolution of tricalcium aluminate by

Dispersing Agents:
Sodium salts and polymers of
condensed napthlene or sulphonic acid
are added to prevent the formation of
lumps and cakes in the cement.
Water Proofing Agents:
Water proofing agents are also added.

Packaging
The ground powder is packed by
automatic machines in a bag.
This is then dispatched to the
markets where it is sold.

TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

ASTM Type I (Normal)

This is the general concrete
construction cement when the
special properties of the other types
are not required. It is commonly used
where concrete will not be exposed
to severe weathering conditions. Its
uses include pavements and
sidewalks,reinforced

ASTM Type II (Moderate Heat or

Modified)
This is used where resistance to
moderate sulfate attack is important.
This produces less heat of hydration
than type I. Their use is commonly on
piers, abutments and retaining
walls.They are used in warm weather
concreting becauseof their lower rise in
temperature.

ASTM Type III (High- Early-Strength)

It is chemically and physically similar to Type I
cement, except that its particles have been
ground finer.
This cement is used where an early strength
gain is important and heat generation is not a
critical factor. This cement supplies the
strength required in a shorter period of time.
It is used when forms need to be removed as
soon as possible or when the structure must be
put into service quickly.

ASTM Type IV ( Low Heat )

Strength development of
this type is slower than of
type I. It is primarily used in
large mass placements
such as gravity dams

ASTM Type V ( Sulfate Resisting)

This type is primarily used where

the soil or groundwater contains
high sulfate concentration and
the structure would be exposed to
severe sulfate attack

Air-Entraining Portland Cement

This cement contains air entraining
materials integrated with the clinker
during manufacture. This provides the
resulting concrete an improved
resistance to scaling and freeze-thaw
action. Also concrete produced from
this cement contains microscopic air
bubbles evenly spaced.

WHITE PORTLAND CEMENT

The selected raw materials of this
type have negligible amounts of
iron and manganese oxides, and
process of manufacture is
controlled to produced white
color. Its primary used is for
architectural concrete products,

Portland-Pozzolan Cement
It is a kind of Blended Cement
which is produced by either
intergrinding of OPC clinker along
with gypsum and pozzolanic
materials in certain proportions or
grinding the OPC clinker, gypsum
and Pozzolanic materials

MASONRY CEMENT
This cement contains
Portland cements, airentraining additives and
materials selected for their
ability to impart
workablilty, plasticity and

Chemical Compositon Of Portland Cement

As indicated earlier the burning operation of the
raw materials results into the reaction between the
oxides and four compound compositions are formed
in the final cement product, as follows:
TRICALCIUM SILICATE: 3CaO SiO 2 = C3S
Hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for the initial set and strength.

DICALCIUM SILICATE: 2CaO SiO2 = C2S

Hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for the initial set and strength.
TETRACALCIUM ALUMINOFERRITE:4CaO Al2O3FeO3 = C4AlF
Contributes to strength development because it is the first compound to hydrate.

Role of Compound Composition

i. Alite or 3CaOSiO2or C3S
ii. Belite or 2CaO SiO2or C2S
iii. Aluminate or 3CaO Al2O3 or C3A
iv. Ferrite or 4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3 or C4AF

Portland Cement Clinker

A dark grey nodular material made
by heating ground limestone and clay
at a temperature of about 1400 C1500 C. The nodules are ground up to
a fine powder to produce cement, with
a small amount of gypsum added to
control the setting properties.

Physical Properties of Portland

Cement
Fineness (Specific Surface)

The finer a cement is ground, the higher the heat of

hydration and resulting accelerated strength is
gained. The strength gain due to fineness is evident
during the first 7 days.

The calculated surface area of the particles in

square meters per kilogram m2/kg of cement. Higher
specific surface indicate finer-ground cements and
usually a more active cement.

Soundness

The ability of a cement to maintain a

stable volume after setting. An unsound
cement will exhibit cracking, disruption,
and eventual disintegration of the
material mass. This delayed-destruction
expansion is caused by excessive
amounts of free lime or magnesium.

Hydration
The chemical reaction that takes place when
Portland cement and water are mixed
together. The hydration reaction is considered
complete at 28 days.
In the presence of water the cement
compounds chemically combined with water
(hydrate) to form new compounds that are the
infrastructure of the hardened cement paste in
concrete.

Setting

When cement is mixed with water to form a fluid paste, the

mixture will eventually become stiff and then hard. This process is
called setting.

False set

A stiffening of a concrete mixture with little evidence of

significance heat generation.

SPECIAL CEMENT
Aluminous Cement
Alumina bauxite and lime stone-the main raw
materials-and the clinker whose main
component is calcium aluminate after
calcination are ground into hydraulic
hardening material, belonging to aluminate
cement, of which the code name is CA. A
limited amount of a- A1203 powder can be
added when the cement whose A1203 content
is over 68% is ground based on the specific

The main characteristics and

application of aluminate
cement are as follows:

Fast setting and high early strength. The

early strength is very high, and the later
strength growth is not significant. Thus,
aluminate cement is mainly used in the
projects of which the construction period
is urgent (such as roads, bridges) and
salvaging (such as plugging); it still can
be used for winter construction projects.

 Large heat of hydration. It is more or less the

same to high-grade Portland cement, but its
heat release is very quick and concentrative.
The total amount of the heat of hydration
within Id is 70%-80%. Aluminate cement would
not be appropriate for mass concrete projects.
Its resistance to fossil water and surfate is
very strong.

 Its alkali-resistance is extremely poor,

inappropriate for the projects that will contact
with alkaline solution.
High heat resistance. When fire-resistant
coarse-fine aggregate (such as chromite) is
used, it can be made into the heat-resistant
projects of 1300- 1400C and its strength can
be maintained around 53%.

 It can be used as the chemical adding

material for building materials to prepare
expansive cement and self-stressing
cement.
Under natural conditions, the long-term
strength and other properties will
decrease a bit. Therefore, aluminate
cement would not be appropriate for the

Expansive cement
Expansive cement can generate volume expansion
in the hydration process, and it does not shrink but
also expand to some extent. The use of expansive
cement can overcome and improve some
shortcomings of ordinary cement concrete
(commonly used cement will shrink in the
hardening process, which causes the structures to
crack and be permeable, inappropriate for some
projects), and can enhance the density of cement
concrete structures and the integrity of concrete.

1. Silicate Expansive Cement

It is the expansive cement made by
mixing aluminate cement and gypsum
based on Portland cement. The value of its
expansion can be adjusted by changing
the content of aluminate cement and
gypsum.

2. Aluminate Expansive
Cement
Aluminate
expansive
cement
is
generated by grinding aluminate cement
clinker and dihydrate gypsum or mixing
their ground particles. Its self-stressing and
air tightness are good.

3. Aluminoferrite Expansive
Cement
It is made by anhydrous calcium
sulphoaluminate and dicalcium silicate
as well as gypsum.

4.Sulphoaluminate Expansive
Cement
It is made by iron phase, anhydrous
calcium
sulphoaluminate
and
dicalcium silicate as well as gypsum.

TESTING OF CEMENT

METHODS OF TESTING
FIELD TESTING
LABORATORY TESTING

FIELD TEST
Open the bag and take a good look at the cement, then
it should not contain any visible lumps.
Colour of cement should be greenish grey.
Should get cool feeling when thrusted.
When we touch the cement, it should give a smooth
&not a gritty feeling.
When we throw the cement on a bucket full of water
before it sinks the particles should flow.
When we make a stiff paste of cement & cut it with
sharp edges & kept on a glass plate under water there
wont be any disturbance to the shape& should get
strength after 24hours.

LABORATORY TESTS
Fineness test
Standard consistency test
Setting time test
Strength test
Soundness test
Heat of hydration test
Chemical composition test

FINENESS TEST
The fineness of cement has an important bearing on
the rate of hydration, rate of gain of strength,
evolution of heat.
Finer cement offers greater surface area.
Disadvantage of fine grinding is that it is susceptible to
air set & early deterioration.
Maximum no. of particles in a sample of
cement<100microns.
The smallest particle should have a size if 1.5microns.
Large particle should have a size of 10microns.

Fineness of cement is tested in

two ways.
By sieving.
By determination specific surface by air
permeability

SIEVE TEST
Take correctly 100grams of cement on a
standard IS sieve No.9
Break down the air-set lumps & sieve it &weigh
it.
This weight shall not exceed 10% for ordinary
cement.
Sieve test is rarely used.
The weight of the residue should not exceed
10% for ordinary cement.

STANDARD PERMEABILITY TEST

Principle of air permeability method is in observing the
time taken for a fixed quantity of air to flow through
compacted cement bed of specified dimension and
porosity.

PROCEDURE:
Cement required to make a cement bed of porosity 0.475 is
calculated.
Pass on the air slowly at constant velocity.
Adjust the rate of air flow until the flowmeter shows a
difference in level of 30-50cm.
Repeat these observation for constant h1/h2. specified air flow.

STANDARD CONSISTENCY TEST

The standard consistency of a cement
paste is defined as that consistency which
will permit a Vicat plunger having 10 mm
diameter and 50 mm length to penetrate to
a depth of 33- 35 mm from the top of the
mould.
Used to find out the percentage of water
required to produce a cement paste of

PROCEDURE:
For first trial, take about 500gms of cement &
water of r%.
Fill it in Vicats mould with in 3-5min.
After filling, shake the mould to expel air.
A standard plunger, 10 mm diameter, 50 mm
long is attached and brought down to touch
the surface of the paste and quickly released.
Note the reading according to depth of
penetration of the plunger

 Conduct trials continuously by taking different

water cement ratios till the plunger penetrates for
a depth of 33-35mm from top.
This particular percentage is known as percentage
of water required to produce cement paste of
standard consistency. This is usually denoted as P.

SUITABLE CONDITIONS: Conducted in a

constant temperature of 272C. Constant
Humidity 90%.

SETTING TIME TEST

An arbitraty division has been made
for the setting time of cement as:
Initial setting time
Final setting time.

INITIAL SETTING TIME

The time elapsed between the moment
that the water is added to the cement,
to the time that the paste starts losing
its plasticity.
Normally a minimum of 30min has
maintained for mixing & handling
operations.
It should not be less than 30min.

FINAL SETTING TIME

The time elapsed between the moment the
water is added to the cement, and the time
when the paste has completely lost its
plasticity and has attained sufficient
firmness to resist certain definite pressure.
It should not exceed 10hours. So that it is
avoided from least vulnerable to damages
from external activities.

PROCEDURE:
Vicat apparatus is used for finding
the setting time.
Take 500gms of cement and add
about 0.85p.
The paste should be filled within 3-5
minutes.
Initial and final setting time is noted.

STRENGTH TEST
This is the most important of all
properties of hardened cement.
Due to excessive shrinkage and cracking
the strength tests are not made on neat
cement paste.
Standard sand is used for finding the
strength of cement.

PROCEDURE:
Take sand and cement (i.e., 1:3 ratio of cement and
sand) Mix them for 1min, then add water of
quantity(P/4)+3.0%.
Mix three ingredients thoroughly until the mixture is
of uniform colour.
The time of mixing should not be<3min and
>4min.Then the mortar is filled into a cube mould
of 7.06cm. Compact the mortar.
Keep the compacted cube in the mould at a
temperature of 27C 2C and at least 90 per cent
relative humidity for 24 hours.
After 24hours the cubes are removed & immersed

SOUNDNESS TEST
It is very important that the cement after
setting shall not undergo any appreciable
change of volume.
This test is to ensure that the cement does
not show any subsequent expansions.
The unsoundness in cement is due to the
presence of excess of lime combined with
acidic oxide at the kiln.
This is due to high proportion of magnesia &
calcium sulphate.

HEAT OF HYDRATION
Cement with water is an exothermic reaction.
Heat of hydration will be found out using
thermos flask.
About 120 calories of heat is generated in
the hydration of 1 gm of cement.
Temperature rise of about 50C is observed
and this causes serious expansion of the
body of dam.

To avoid this :
Lean mix
Puzzolanic cement
Artificial cooling materials
Incorporation of pipe system in the body of
dam and applying cold brine solutions.

Tests :
To be carried out only in low heat cement.
Vaccum flask method for short duration and
adiabatic calorimeter for longer period.
Should not exceed 65 cal/gm at 7 days and
should be less than 75 cal/gm at 28 days

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION TEST

Ratio of percentage of lime to percentage of silica,
alumina and iron oxide when calculated by :
Cao-0.7So3
2.8SiO +1.2Al O +0.65Fe O
Should not be greater than 1.02 and not less than
0.66 This is called LIME SATURATION FACTOR
PERCENT

LIME
A binding material

LIME
Limeis acalcium-containinginorganicmaterial in
whichcarbonates,oxidesandhydroxides
predominate. In the strictsenseof the term, lime
iscalcium oxideorcalcium hydroxide. It is also
the name of the naturalmineral(native lime) CaO
which occurs as a product ofcoal seam firesand
in alteredlimestonexenolithsinvolcanic
ejecta.The word "lime" originates with its earliest
use as building mortar and has the sense of

HISTORY OF LIME
Lime is an incredible material that continues to
amaze archaeologists, because of its ability to
preserve ancient artifacts, which are
discovered throughout our modern day.
It is factual that Man evolved due to the
existence of lime. Here is a brief outline of its
use as a structural finish.

HISTORY OF LIME
The Beginning
Beginning with all life on earth, lime stone is
formed in the oceanic environment which
basically evolved from biological marine life
and shelled-creatures that lived and died. As
their shell remains were left to settle to the
bottom they were buried deep into the ground
by the earth's ever changing activity such as
pressure and heat. Throughout time this

HISTORY OF LIME

HISTORY OF LIME
Prehistoric
According to experts, lime has been sheltering
man for at least 7,500 years and perhaps even
longer.
As early man desperately sought shelter from
the elements, we know that one of the earliest
plasters was made of lime.
Here is a likely scenario how the first lime
plaster was created:

HISTORY OF LIME
A limestone cooking platform was subjected to
continuous heat and flame. Afterward, the fire was
doused with water, which initiated a chemical
reaction with the heated lime, creating a putty-like
mass. Once this plasticized lime cooled, it was
molded and applied over a framework of reed and
fabric, forming walls and ceilings that offered strong
protection from wind, the sun, and precipitation.

The Lascaux
caves in France

Egypts Sphinx

HISTORY OF LIME
15th century
During the Renaissance, lime made an
explosive revival in the plastering and painting
arts. In the mid-15thcentury, artisans from
Venice created a new type of external facing
called Marmorino, made by applying lime
directly onto terra cotta brick and lime-mortar
bases.
Craftsmen developed other impressive

HISTORY OF LIME
17th century
The Scagliola technique came into fashion in
the 17thcentury as an effective substitute for
costly marble inlays. Scagliola was also used to
produce building facades, stucco columns,
sculptures, and other architectural elements
that resemble marble.

HOUSES OF
PARLIAMENT IN
UK

COLLOSEUM,
ITALY

GREAT WALL
OF CHINA

4 TYPES OF LIME
1.QUICK LIME
It is also known as caustic lime. It is obtained
by calcination (i.e. heating to redness) of
comparatively pure lime stone. It is amorphous
in nature, highly caustic and possesses great
affinity to moisture.

4 TYPES OF LIME
2.SLAKED LIME
It is also known as hydrate of lime. It is
obtained by slaking (i.e. chemical combination
of quick lime with water) of quick lime. It is
ordinary pure lime, in white powder form,
available in market. It has got the tendency of
absorbing carbonic acid from the atmosphere
in presence of water.

4 TYPES OF LIME
3.FAT LIME
It is also known as high calcium lime or pure
lime or rich lime or white lime. It is popularly
known as fat lime as it slakes vigorously and its
volume is increased to about 2 to 2.5 times
that of quick lime. This lime is used for various
purposes as white washing, plastering of walls,
as lime mortar with sand for pointing in
masonry work, as a lime mortar with surkhi for

4 TYPES OF LIME
4.HYDRAULIC LIME
It is also known as water lime. This lime
contains clay and some amount of ferrous
oxide. It sets under water and hence also
known as water lime. Depending upon the
percentage of clay IS has divided hydraulic lime
in three classes namely:

HARDENING
The hardening of lime in the air includes two
processes:
Crystallization
In the use of lime mortar, Ca(OH)2 solution is
over-saturated and gradually precipitate
crystals because the free water gradually
evaporates and is absorbed by masonry. This
process accelerates the hardening of lime
mortar and meantime the mortar tightens and

HARDENING
Carbonization
With C02 in the air, Ca(OH)2 generates the
insoluble crystals of calcium carbonate, and the
precipitated water gradually evaporates. The
reactive mode is as follows:
Ca(OH)2+C02+nH20 = CaC03+(n+ 1)H20 This
process is known as carbonization.

lIME
Process of How Lime is Made
Uses of Lime
Comparison of Lime and
Cement

Process of How
Lime is Made

I. In the Beginning
Limestone is a naturally occurring and abundant sedimentary rock
consisting of high levels of calcium and/or magnesium carbonate
and/or dolomite (calcium and magnesium carbonate), along with
minerals. Lime production begins by extracting limestone from
quarries and mines.

II. Sizing . . .
Limestone enters a primary crusher to break the rock. Depending
on the size of the feedstone required, limestone may go through a
secondary or tertiary crusher to further reduce its size. The stone is
then screened into various sizes ranging from several inches to
dust-sized particles. The sized stone is then washed.

III. Calcining . . .
Preheating limestone is heated by direct contact with kiln
exhaust gases that enter the preheater kiln. Processed stone is
transported by conveyor belt to the lime kilns. To cook or calcine
limestone, there must be a significant transfer of heat to the
limestone. In general, the heat transfer from the fuel source to
limestone can be divided intotwo stages:

 Calcining the kiln fuel is burned in the preheated air from the
cooling zone and, as the limestone moves down the kiln, the heat
turns the limestone into quicklime and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Cooling quicklime leaving the calcining zone is cooled by direct
contact with cooling air.

 While there are multiple kiln types in use, the

rotary kiln is the most common kiln found in the
U.S. A rotary kiln consists of a rotating cylinder
that sits horizontal on an incline. Limestone is
fed into the upper or "back end" of the kiln, while
fuel and combustion air are fired into the lower
orfront end of the kiln. The limestone is
heated as it moves down the kiln toward the
lower end. As the preheated limestone moves
through the kiln, it is calcined into lime. The
lime is discharged from the kiln into a cooler
where it is used to preheat the combustion air.
Lime can either be sold as is or crushed to make
hydrated lime.

Hydrated Lime
Quicklime can be processed into hydrated lime by crushing the
quicklime, adding water to the crushed lime (water accounts for
approximately 1% of raw hydrate), and then classifying the
hydrated lime to ensure it meets customer specifications before it is
transported.

Uses of
Lime

Uses of Lime
Lime is versatile mineral.
Lime are used in various forms:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Construction
Environmental
Metallurgical
Other uses of lime

Constructi
on

Construction
The dominant construction-related use of lime is soil stabilization for
roads, building foundations, and earthen dams. Lime is added to
low quality soils to produce a usable base and sub base.

Construction
Hydrated lime has long been acknowledged to be a superior antistripping additive for asphalt pavements. It also helps resist rutting
and fracture growth at low temperatures, reduce age hardening,
and improve the moisture resistance and durability. A recent study
shows lime holds significant advantages over other additives for hot
mix asphalt roads, including long term cost savings and increased
durability.

Construction
Perhaps the oldest and most traditional use of lime has been in
mortar and plaster, because of its superior plasticity and
workability. This area provides additional information about the
construction applications of lime.

A. Asphalt
Lime has been used in hot mix asphalt (HMA) to reduce moisture
sensitivity and stripping since 1910 in the United States. While
hydrated lime has long been an acknowledged anti-strip additive for
asphalt pavements, recent studies confirm that lime imparts other
important benefits:

 It stiffens the binder and HMA to resist rutting;

It improves toughness and resistance to fracture growth at low
temperatures;
Lime changes oxidation chemistry in the binder to reduce age
hardening; and
Lime alters clay fines to improve moisture stability and durability.

 Lime is also useful to upgrade marginal aggregates. In addition to

the chemical effects that lime imparts to reduce stripping potential
and the aging impact resulting from oxidative hardening, the filler
effect of lime improves resistance to high-temperature rutting and
adds fracture toughness at low temperatures.

B. Building Construction
Masonry Mortars
Lime has been used as a primary ingredient
in masonry mortars for centuries, and this
important use continues to the present day in
both historic and contemporary applications.
Mortars made with lime and cement exhibit
superior workability balanced with appropriate
compressive strength as well as low water
permeability and superior bond strength.

Types of Hydrated Lime

Type S (Special) hydrated lime is a fine, white, high purity product
specially hydrated for convenient, trouble-free use in mortar
applications.
Type SA (Special Air-Entrained) hydrated lime is similar, except
that it includes an air entraining agent which produces minute voids
in the mixed mortar.

Modern Masonry Applications

Studies have compared the performance of cement-lime mortars to
that of masonry cement mortars (which use limestone and other
additives in lieu of hydrated lime) and mortar cements. Cementlime mortars have shown higher bond and shear strength and lower
water leakage.

Historic Masonry Applications

Most masonry produced before the turn of the 20th century used
lime-sand mortar. The elasticity of high lime content mortars allows
for expansion and contraction of such historic masonry walls without
damaging the masonry units. These units can have low
compressive strengths and can be damaged by modern masonry
products with higher strengths.

 Stuccos, and Plasters

Lime is a major constituent in exterior and interior stuccos and
plasters, enhancing the strength, durability, and workability of these
finishes.

Plastering Uses
Type S (Special) hydrated lime shows its versatility and beauty when
used for interior and exterior plaster or render.
ASTM C206 Standard Specification for Finishing Hydrated Lime
requires that finishing lime be free of any chemical or physical
characteristics that would cause flaws in the plaster.

Other Uses of Lime in Building

Construction:
Limewash
- is a versatile, accommodating, and robust surface covering
compatible with a variety of building surfaces. It is maintainable,
beautiful, stable, and long lasting.

 Site Preparation
Lime can be used to dry wet sites. Lime can also react with clays in
soil to provide a more stabile base for building construction.

 Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)

Lime is also employed in the manufacture of innovative lightweight
cellular concrete products, such as autoclaved aerated concrete
(also called aircrete), which can be formed into block as well as
large masonry units or insulation slabs.

C. Soil Stabilization
Lime can be used to treat soils in order to improve their workability
and load-bearing characteristics in a number of situations.
Quicklime is frequently used to dry wet soils at construction sites
and elsewhere, reducing downtime and providing an improved
working surface.

 An even more significant use of lime is in the modification and

stabilization of soil beneath road and similar construction projects.
Lime can substantially increase the stability, impermeability, and
load-bearing capacity of the subgrade. Both quicklime and
hydrated lime may be used for this purpose.

Soil Modification:
Lime is an excellent choice for short-term
modification of soil properties. Lime can modify
almost all fine-grained soils, but the most
dramatic improvement occurs in clay soils of
moderate to high plasticity. Modification occurs
because calcium cations (KAT-eye-ns) supplied
by hydrated lime replace the cations normally
present on the surface of the clay mineral,
promoted by the high pH environment of the
lime-water system.

Thus, the clay surface mineralogy is altered, producing

the following benefits:

Plasticity reduction;
Reduction in moisture-holding capacity (drying);
Swell reduction;
Improved stability; and
Ability to construct a solid working platform.

SoilStabilization:
Soil stabilization occurs when lime is added to a reactive soil to
generate long-term strength gain through a pozzolanic reaction.
This reaction produces stable calcium silicate hydrates and calcium
aluminate hydrates as the calcium from the lime reacts with the
aluminates and silicates solubilized from the clay.

 The full-term pozzolanic reaction can continue

for a very long period of time, even decades -- as
long as enough lime is present and the pH
remains high (above 10). As a result, lime
treatment can produce high and long-lasting
strength gains. The key to pozzolanic reactivity
and stabilization is a reactive soil, a good mix
design protocol, and reliable construction
practices.

How to Use Lime for Soil Stabilization?

Lime stabilization is not difficult to carry out.
After proper mix design and testing is
performed, in-place mixing is usually used to add
the appropriate amount of lime to soil, mixed to
an appropriate depth. Pulverization and mixing
is used to thoroughly combine the lime and soil.

 For heavy clays, preliminary mixing may be followed by 24 to 48

hours (or more) of moist curing, followed by final mixing. For
maximum development of strength and durability, proper
compaction is necessary. Correct curing is also important. If
sulfates are present at levels greater than 0.3 percent, special
procedures are required.

Environme
nt

 Municipalities, industrial facilities, utilities, and

mining operations rely on lime to help comply
with environmental regulations. Lime is used to
treat stack gases from power plants, industrial
facilities, and medicaland hazardous waste
incinerators. Lime absorbs and neutralizes sulfur
oxides from these gases, helping to prevent acid
rain and reducing emissions of hazardous air
pollutants, including mercury.

 Lime is vital to municipalities, which use lime for

potable water softening and to remove impurities
from drinking water. Furthermore, lime is a
highly cost-effective method to treat sewage
sludge and animal waste from concentrated
animal feeding operations. Likewise, industrial
facilities and mining operations use lime to treat
wastewater by adjusting the pH of acidic
wastewater, removing phosphorus and nitrogen,
and promoting clarification.

Metallurgic

 The largest use of lime is in steel

manufacturing, where it serves as a flux to
remove impurities (silica, phosphorus, and
sulfur). Lime is used in basic oxygen furnaces
and electric arc furnaces as well as in secondary
refining. High calcium and dolomitic lime used in
the steel industry must meet exacting physical
and chemical properties.

Electric Arc Furnaces

In electric arc furnaces, scrap iron and steel, scrap substitutes such
as DRI and HBI, pig iron, iron ore, and beneficiated iron ore are
placed in a furnace and melted by the use of heat from an electric
current. A lime flux consisting of quicklime or a blend of quicklime
and dolomitic lime is added. The total flux amount varies from 50 to
120 pounds per ton of steel, and up to 50% may be dolomitic lime.

Basic Oxygen Furnaces(BOF)

In basic oxygen steelmaking, molten iron from a blast furnace is
charged into a refractory-lined steelmaking furnace, and then
oxygen is injected into molten iron at high speeds, resulting in
oxidation of carbon and impurities. Lime is used in several steps in
this process.

 Many steel plants desulfurize the hot metal

externally in torpedo cars or ladles following the
blast furnace, utilizing a flow-aided pulverized
lime blend before charging into the BOF. Lime
may be used for sulfur and phosphorus removal
at this stage as well. Most importantly, quicklime
is typically added to the mixture in the
steelmaking furnace after the beginning of the
oxygen blow where it reacts with impurities
(primarily silica and phosphorus) to form a slag
which is later removed.

 The lime factor per ton of steel ingot averages

150 lb./ton. Although steel plants flux with high
calcium quicklime, most of the basic oxygen
plants substitute or add 30 to 50% dolomitic
(high magnesium) quicklime because experience
shows that this extends the refractory lining life
of the furnaces. While most basic oxygen steel
plants use pebble quicklime, the injection
systems used in certain processes (such as
QBOP) require pulverized quicklime.

Secondary Refining
Whether produced in a basic oxygen or electric arc furnace, steel
often requires secondary refining to transform it into a saleable
product, especially where ultra pure steel is required. Many
secondary refining processes use lime to perform key functions,
such as the adjustment of steel temperature or chemistry, the
removal of additional impurities, and the prevention of reabsorption
of impurities from slags.

 In addition, quicklime may be used with other materials, such as

fluorspar or alumina, to form a synthetic slag, which is used as a
flux to remove additional sulfur and phosphorus after the initial steel
refining process.

Steel Products
Hydrated lime (either dry or as a slurry) has a number of
miscellaneous applications in the manufacture of steel products. It
is commonly used in wire drawing, acting as a lubricant as the steel
rods or wires are drawn through dies, and in pig and slag casting in
which a lime whitewash coating on the molds prevents sticking.

 Lime is used to neutralize the acid-based waste

pickle liquor in which iron salts are also
precipitated. After pickling, steel products are
often given a lime bath to neutralize the last
traces of the pickling acid adhering to the metal.
Hydrated lime is used to provide temporary
corrosion protection in the form of a whitewash
coating on steel products and to neutralize acid
in coke by-product plants.

Lime is also essential to the production of non-ferrous metals. For

example, lime is used to beneficiate copper ore, to make alumina
and magnesia for use in aluminum and magnesium manufacture, to
extract uranium, and to recover gold and silver.

Other Uses
of Lime

 The chemical industry uses lime in the production of a variety of

chemicals including sodium alkalis, calcium carbide, cyanimide,
citric acid, petrochemicals, propylene glycol glycerin, magnesia,
calcium hypochlorite, and many others. These chemicals, in turn,
are used in virtually every product in the United States.

 A growing use for lime is the production of precipitated calcium

carbonate, which is used in the production of paper, paint, ink,
plastic, rubber, and some foods. The paper industry uses lime as a
causticizing agent, for bleaching, and to produce PCC for their own
use.

 These and other key uses of lime, such as for sugar refining,
refractories, and other food industries are discussed in this area.

Other Uses
of Lime

 Lime has been used in construction for

thousands of years, and can be used as a strong,
durable mortar that enhances the home and
reduces environmental impact. However, cement
may be needed for situations where curing time
is of the essence. Concrete applications often
include both cement and lime in order to take
advantage of the special properties of each.

Chemical Composition
Lime is produced from natural limestone by burning the stone in a
kiln until only quicklime -- calcium oxide -- is left behind. The
quicklime is then mixed with small amounts of water to create
hydrated lime, which may be included in cement or mixed with
water for use as mortar.

 Lime hardens by slowly absorbing carbon dioxide and turning back

to limestone over time. Cement consists of highly reactive silicacontaining compounds -- when mixed with water, they harden
quickly.

Physical Properties
Lime hardens much more slowly than cement-containing mortars,
making it much more workable. Lime is also less brittle and less
prone to cracking, and any cracked areas can absorb carbon dioxide
and mend over time.

 Cement hardens very quickly, but may be too strong for some
applications, e.g., working with old bricks. Cement is also prone to
cracking as a structure settles, and may eventually require repair.

Vapor Barrier
Lime is also breathable, allowing vapors to pass through, which can
reduce moisture and improve the environment of the home. Cement
creates a waterproof barrier that does not allow vapors to escape,
and can absorb water, causing moisture to accumulate -- especially
in basements.

Environmental Concerns
Lime production results in release of carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere, but lime mortar
absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
over its lifetime. As a result, lime mortar is
considered by environmentalists to be "carbon
neutral." In contrast, cement production
contributes greatly to global warming, as copious
amounts of carbon dioxide are released during
its production.