SYMMETRY AND

PATTERNS IN
MONUMENTS

SECTION:A
GROUP:11
MEMBERS

ROLL NUMBER

SALONI JAIN

3252

NISHTHA JHA

3064

SRISHTI PANDEY

3242

JASMEEN KAUR

3360

SRISHTI NARANG

3221

Teacher In-Charge: Priyanka

Maam

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our
special thanks of gratitude to
our teacher Priyanka maam who
gave us the golden opportunity
to do this wonderful project on
the topic Symmetry and
Patterns in Monuments, which
also helped us in doing a lot of
Research and we came to know
about so many new things.

SAGRADA FAMILIA
The Baslica i Temple Expiatori
de la Sagrada Famlia is a
large Roman Catholic church
in Barcelona, Catalonia
(Spain), designed by Catalan
architect Antoni Gaud (1852
1926). Although incomplete,
the church is a UNESCO World
Heritage Site,[5] and in
November 2010 Pope
Benedict XVI consecrated and
proclaimed it a minor basilica,
[6][7][8] as distinct from a
cathedral, which must be the
seat of a bishop.

 Construction of Sagrada Famlia had commenced in 1882 and Gaud became

involved in 1883,[5] taking over the project and transforming it with his
architectural and engineering style, combining Gothic and curvilinear Art
Nouveau forms. Gaud devoted his last years to the project, and at the time of
his death at age 73 in 1926, less than a quarter of the project was complete.[9]
Sagrada Famlia's construction progressed slowly, as it relied on private
donations and was interrupted by the Spanish Civil War, only to resume
intermittent progress in the 1950s. Construction passed the midpoint in 2010
with some of the project's greatest challenges remaining[9] and an anticipated
completion date of 2026, the centenary of Gaud's death.

INTERIOR
The church plan is that of a Latin cross with five aisles. The central nave vaults
reach forty-five metres (150ft) while the side nave vaults reach thirty metres
(100ft). The transept has three aisles. The columns are on a 7.5 metre (25ft)
grid. However, the columns of theapse, resting on del Villar's foundation, do
not adhere to the grid, requiring a section of columns of the ambulatory to
transition to the grid thus creating a horseshoe pattern to the layout of those
columns. The crossing rests on the four central columns of porphyry
supporting a great hyperboloid surrounded by two rings of twelve
hyperboloids (currently under construction). The central vault reaches sixty
metres (200ft). The apse is capped by a hyperboloid vault reaching seventyfive metres (250ft). Gaud intended that a visitor standing at the main
entrance be able to see the vaults of the nave, crossing, and apse; thus the
graduated increase in vault loft. There are gaps in the floor of theapse,
providing a view down into the crypt below.
The columns of the interior are a unique Gaud design. Besides branching to
support their load, their ever-changing surfaces are the result of the
intersection.

Geometric details
The towers on the Nativity faade are
crowned with geometrically shaped tops
that are reminiscent ofCubism(they were
finished around 1930), and the intricate
decoration is contemporary to the style of
Art Nouveau, but Gaud's unique style drew
primarily from nature, not other artists or
architects, and resists categorization.
Gaud usedhyperboloid structuresin later
designs of the Sagrada Famlia (more
obviously after 1914), however there are a
few places on the nativity faadea design
not equated with Gaud'sruled-surface
designwhere thehyperboloidcrops up.
For example, all around the scene with the
pelican there are numerous examples
(including the basket held by one of the
figures). There is a hyperboloid adding
structural stability to the cypress tree (by
connecting it to the bridge). And finally, the
"bishop's mitre" spires are capped with
hyperboloid structures.[36] In his later
designs, ruled surfaces are prominent in the
nave's vaults and windows and the surfaces
of the Passion faade.

LOTUS TEMPLE
TheLotus Temple, located
inNew Delhi,India,
is
a
Bah'House of Worship
completed in1986. Notable
for itsflowerlikeshape, it
serves as the Mother Temple
of
theIndian subcontinent
and
has
become
a
prominent attractionin the
city. The Lotus Temple has
won numerous architectural
awards and been featured in
hundreds of newspaper and
magazine articles.

Entrance leaves and

outer leaves
The shell surfaces on both sides of the
ridge of the entrance and outer leaves
are formed out of spheres of different
radii, with their centres located at
different points inside the building.
There is one set of spheres for the
entrance leaves, some of which define
the inner surfaces, and others which
define the outer surfaces of the shells.
The diameters of the spheres have been
fixed to satisfy the structural
consideration of varying shell thickness.
Similarly, for the outer leaves, another
set of spheres defines the inner and
outer surfaces of the shells. However, for
the outer leaves, the shell is uniformly
133 mm thick towards the bottom, and
increases to 255 mm up to the tip,
beyond the glazing line.
The entrance leaf is 18.2m wide at the
entrance and rises 7.8m above the
podium level. The outer leaf is 15.4m
wide and rises up to 22.5m above the
podium.

The Inner leaves.

Each corrugation of the inner leaf, comprising a
cusp (ridge) and a re-entrant (valley), is made
up of two toroidal surfaces. A toroid is
generated when a circle of a certain radius, 'r',
is rotated around the centre of a circle of much
larger radius, 'R'. A cycle tube is a typical
toroid. The shaded portion of the toroid is a
part of the inner leaf shell.
The inner leaves rise to an elevation of 34.3m
above the inner podium. At the lowest level
each shell has a maximum width of 14m. It is
uniformly 200mm thick.

The Arch.
All around the central hall are nine splendid
arches placed at angular intervals of 40
degrees. The shape of these arches is formed
by a number of plane, conical and cylindrical
surfaces. The intersection of these surfaces
provides interesting contours and greatly
enhances the beauty of the arches. The nine
arches bear almost the entire load of the
superstructure.

The Interior dome.

Three ribs spring from the crown of each arch.
While the central one (the dome rib) rises
radially towards the central hub, the other two
(the base ribs) move away from the central rib
and intersect with similar base ribs of adjacent
arches, thus forming an intricate pattern. Other
radial ribs rise from each of these intersections
and all meet at the centre of the dome.Up to a
certain height, the space between the ribs is
covered by two layers of 6Omm-thick shells.

SETTING OUT
The setting out of the surface geometry posed a
difficult task. Unlike conventional structures for
which the elements are defined by dimensions
and levels, here the shape, size, thickness, and
other details were indicated in the drawings only
by levels, radii, and equations. These
parameters, therefore, had to be converted into
a set of dimensions in terms of length, breadth,
height, and thickness, easily understood by a site
engineer or a carpentry foreman. To achieve this,
a system of coordinates along x, y and z axes for
every 40 degrees. segment of the temple was
worked out with the help of a computer. The
problem was then further simplified by working
out from these co-ordinates levels and distances
which a carpenter or a reinforcement fitter could
easily comprehend and then arrive at the
surfaces and boundaries. Eighteen reference
stations were established outside the building for
setting out the arches, entrance, outer and inner
leaves.
First, 18 radial lines were established from the
centre of the building. Along these lines, using
inclined and vertical distances, end points A and
B for surface (1) were established. By using a set
of curved templates, each of varying curvature,
surface (1) between these lines was developed.
From this surface the other surfaces of the arch
were set out by using stepped templates with
respect to surface (1).

TAJ MAHAL

The Taj Mahal in Agra, India is one of

the most beautiful monuments in the
world it is rich in both history and
symmetry. The Taj Mahal was built by
the mughal emperor shah jahan for
his third wife mumtaz mahal it is
considered to be a symbol of love
apart from this the Taj Mahal is also a
tribute to symmetry.
The Taj Mahal is an extensive
complex of buildings and gardens
that extends over 22.44 hectares
(55.5 acres) and includes subsidiary
tombs, waterworks infrastructure,
the small town of 'Taj Ganji' to the
south and a 'moonlight garden' to
the north of the river. Construction
began in 1632 AD, (1041AH), on the
south bank of the RiverYamunain
Agra, and was substantially complete
by 1648 AD (1058 AH).
The architecture was to express this
concept through perfect symmetry,

A variant is used in the great gate.

In the mausoleum the plan is
expressed in perfect cross-axial
symmetry, so that the building is
focused on the central tomb
chamber. And the inner
organization is reflected on the
facades, which present a perfectly
balanced composition when seen
from the extensions of the axes
which generate the plan.
Bilateral symmetry dominated by a
central accent has generally been
recognized as an ordering principle
of the architecture of rulers aiming
at absolute power, as an expression
of the ruling force which brings
about balance and harmony, 'a
striking symbol of the stratification
of aristocratic society under
centralized authority'. A symmetric
grading down to the minutest
ornamental detail, particularly
striking is die-hierarchical use of
colour. The only building in the
whole complex entirely raced with
white marble is the mausoleum.

 Reflection symmetries also abound

in the decorations, made from
precious and semiprecious stones
inlaid on white, translucent marble
Even the reflecting pools of water
add to the sense of exquisite
symmetry throughout the site.
But it's also worth looking down
at the intriguing tiling patterns of
the paving stones that cover the
ground around the Taj Mahal.
Even the drainage holes in some of
the stones have a striking
hexagonal pattern.
And amid the symmetrical gardens
in front of the Taj Mahal, walkway
stones are laid in a pattern that
combines squares and elongated
hexagons to create regular
octagons.
All in all, theTaj Mahalis surely
one of the world's most impressive
and beautiful examples of the use
of symmetry in architecture and
design.

THE GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA

The Great Pyramid of Giza is situated

about ten miles to the south-west of Cairo,
the capital of Egypt. Known as the
Pyramid of Cheops (Khufu), it stands on
the northern edge of the Giza Plateau, 198
feet above sea level, in the eastern
extremity of the Libyan section of the
Great Sahara Desert . To the south-east of
the Great Pyramid lies the Sphinx, carved
out of the rock, with its gaze directed
towards the rising sun.
While archeologists generally contend that
the Great Pyramid was built during the
reign of Pharaoh Cheops (Khufu) of the
IVth dynasty (erection period circa 2623
B.C.), this is questioned by various written
accounts and recent discoveries.
In geometric form, the Great Pyramid is
what is called a true pyramid. Its base is a
perfect square. Each of its four sides form
perfect equilateral triangles. These
triangles slant evenly inward and upward
from the base, until they meet at an apex
situated perpendicularly over the centre
of its base where the two base-diagonals
intersect. The last stone (the apex stone)
laid in place is also a true pyramid in form.

It is worthy of special note that the entire geometric structure

of the Great Pyramid is designed on the basis of Pi - 3.14159 the mathematical ratio upon which the whole physical
universe is designed, (Archimedes 287-212 B.C., the Greek
mathematician, never came closer than 3.1428) and the value
of "y" - 365.242 - the number of days in the earth's solar year
(the time interval in days between two successive vernal
equinoxes in the earth's journey around the sun).
In mathematics, Pi is the ratio between the circumference of a
circle and its diameter (the straight line through its centre).
That is to say, the circumference of any size circle is always
3.14159 +, times its diameter. This sign has been adopted
because of the fact that the ratio in question has never been
ascertained to its finality. It has, however, been calculated to
an exceedingly high degree of precision, namely, to over 5,000
decimal places.
The amazing fact that this geometric ratio Pi, which pervades
the whole universe, from the vast solar systems to the tiniest
atoms, and is incorporated in the Great Pyramid, was first
revealed by the angle of the slope of the Pyramid's sides. This
angle results in the Pyramid's vertical height bearing the same
ratio to the perimeter of its base that the radius of a circle
bears to the circumference.

 Some examples are:

(1) The square base of the Pyramid (four sides) equals
36,524,235 P. inches.
(2) Take the length of the King's Chamber as the
diameter of a circle, then compute, by the best
methods of modern science, the area of that circle.
Throw that circle into a square shape the length of a
side of that square will be found to measure exactly
the number of days in a solar year, or 365.2423 P.
inches.
Ever since the Great Pyramid was first constructed,
using a proportionate mathematical system of
numbers, all other subsequent pyramids, with a
perfect model before them, showed a marked
deterioration in standard of construction.
An example of the symmetry of mathematical
proportions in the Great Pyramid is found in the
measurements of the King's Chamber and AnteChamber. Their dimensions show that:
(1) The width of the King's Chamber equals half of its
length.
(2) The height of the King's Chamber, equals half of
the diagonal of its floor.
(3) If the length of the granite portion of the AnteChamber is multiplied by an even 100, and this
length is taken to express the diameter of a circle,
the arc of that circle will be found to equal the arc of
the square base of the Pyramid.
These few examples should suffice to indicate
representational functions of the solar year. The
scientific facts monumentalised in the Great Pyramid
did not emerge accidentally; a superior knowledge of
geometry, mathematics and astronomy would have
been essential notwithstanding the means and willpower to express them in structural form.

BUDDHIST STUPAS

Thestupa, an architectural structure

usually housing the cremated remains
or possessions of important saintly
figures,is considered to be the
structural emblem and the most
important type of monument of
Buddhism. Moststupas have a very
distinctive semi-spherical shape, often
surrounded by a fence. As Buddhism
was introduced in different regions,
the basic architectural features of
stupas were transformed into a variety
of shapes reflecting the artistic
expressions of those cultures.
The historical development of the
Stupa can be roughly divided into two
phases:
The Hinayana (c. 400 B.C- 250 A.D.)
was the 'doctrine of the elders', and
Mahayana or later phase (c. 251- 700
A.D.), 'the great vehicle' of Buddhism.
The latter phase witnessed a shift from
iconic to aniconic imagery of the
Buddha, but the Stupa architecture
itself remained distinct from all

Generally stupas have 5 components: the square base which

represents earth, the round dome representing water, the cone
shape representing fire, the canopy representing air ,and the
volume of the stupa representing void.
The most notable among the stupas is the Great Stupa at Sanchi.
Sanchi Stupa is said to be one of the most organized structures with
the best architectural designs that hail from the medieval period.
The gateway has as eye-catching architecture, with male and female
tree murals carved on it. It is believed that these two spirits portray
the human feelings and mental state. Buddhists believe that they
are welcoming figurines and hence a "good omen" to have at the
front.Sanchi was constructed in the mid third century BCE.The four
entrances of the stupa of Sanchi form a swastika.
Stupa 2 at this site has many of its sandstone posts and railings
adorned with sculptures. These vigorously executed compositions
are often more ornamental than narrative. A peacock with with
outspread feathers is schematized into a geometric pattern that
almost completely fills one medallion ;smaller pea hens are
positioned at either side .Other medallions depict a pair of geese
,one with the head up ,the other with the head down;an elephant ,its
trunk held high ,devours lotus flowers ;and composite beasts with
crocodile jaws or vyala snouts and fish tails are sinuously worked
into the space of a half-medallion.Human figures together with
animals appear in other compositions at Sanchi.A horse bearing a
rider holding a bow is found in one medallion.

In the first century AD the free

standing gateways of stupa 1 at
Sanchi were erected. These imitate
timber practice with sandstone
posts supporting horizontal
architraves :sculptural panels and
friezes cover almost all the
elements .Peacocks adorn the
architrave ends ;gracefully posed
,their heads are turned around to
face each other ,their long feathers
trailing to either side .On the
columns ducks inhabit a lotus pond
depicted in exuberant detail; deer
form part of a peaceful forest scene
with ascetics seated before a
thatch hut .Fully modeled
sculptures, usually pairs of animals
with courtly riders ,serve as
capitals on the Sanchi gateways.
The carving successfully conveys
both the form and bulk of the
animals;garlands,headbands and
cloaks are rendered with care.


THE GREAT MOSQUE OF
CORDOBA, SPAIN

In the mid-eight century a

power struggle instigated by
the Abbasids of Persia led to
the removal from power of the
Umayyads. One survivor of the
coup Abd al-Rahman fled to
Spain and breaking the link
with Baghdad created an
independent Umayyad inspired
Islamic nation.Under his
leadership the building of the
Great Mosque of Cordoba was
initiated. It began construction
in 787 CE, then expanded
under later rulers.
The monument is most noted
for its arcaded area with a
forest of 856 columns
predominantly of onyx marble
and granite .Double arches
permitted higher ceilings. A

 The double horseshoe-shaped

arches added height and drama
to the prayer space, especially
with their red-and-white striped
decoration on top of simple
columns. The ribbed dome of the
mosque gave it strength, but
also formed a star pattern that
highlights the mosaic designs in
the center and between the ribs.
Various key type patterns in red
and white brickwork are depicted
in the exterior doorways and
arches of the Great Mosque of
Cordoba.The red and
white,marble and brick ornament
of the Mosque can be divided
into three groups :
Panels with two dimensional
patterns above gates and
windows
Straight framing bands
Patterns in the key stones of the
flat lintels above the gates

From a total of eighteen key

type frieze patterns all
eighteen showed reflection
properties :thirteen with twodirection reflection
symmetry:five with onedirection reflection symmetry
in association with other
symmetry characteristics.From
a total of thirteen key type all
over patterns six showed
reflection symmetry of some
kind ;various other symmetry
characteristics were evident in
the thirteen but none of these
showed as high an incidence as
reflection symmetry .Overall it
can be seen that from a total of
thirty one patterns ,twenty four
displayed reflection symmetry
to varying degrees.

ADALAJ NI
VAV(STEPWELL)

Adalaj stepwell is a unique Hindu

'water building' in the village of Adalaj,
close to Ahmedabad town in
Gandhinagar district in the Indian state
of Gujarat. The stepwell was built in
1499 by Muslim king Mohammed Begda
for Queen Rani Roopba, wife of Veer
Singh, the Vaghela chieftain. The step
well or 'Vav', as it is called in Gujarati,
is intricately carved and is five stories
in depth. Such step wells were once
integral to the semi-arid regions of
Gujarat as they provided basic water
needs for drinking, washing and
bathing. These wells were also venues
for colourful festivals and sacred
rituals. While early stepwells were
made of stone, later step wells were
made of mortar, stucco, rubble and
laminar stones. The well cylinder was
the basic form used to deepen the
wells. It is also inferred that the
Stepwells in Gujarat have survived so
long in view of the builders knowledge

 The history of the Adalaj step-well built in

1498 is established by an inscription in
Sanskrit found on a marble slab positioned in a
recess on the first floor, from the eastern entry
to the well. Its construction was started by
Rana Veer Singh of theVaghela dynastyof
Dandai Desh. But he was killed in a war,
thereafter the Muslim kingMahmud Begadaof
a neighbouring state built it in Indo-Islamic
architectural style, in 1499.The cultural and
architectural depiction in the deep wells at
various levels are a tribute to the history of
step wells, built initially by Hindus and
subsequently ornamented and blended with
Islamic architectureduring theMuslimrule.
An interesting depiction carved from a single
block of stone is of theAmi Khumbor(symbolic
pot of the water of life) and theKalp Vriksha(a
tree of life). Also seen is a fresco ofnavagraha
or nine planets. These depictions are said to
attract villagers for worship during marriage
and other ritualistic ceremonies. The
temperature inside the well is said to be about
five degrees lower than the outside hot
summer temperatures. This encouraged the
women who came to fetch water to spend
more time in the cool climes here. They stayed
to worship the gods and goddesses and
gossip. A tribute paid to the rich underground
structures, which are intricately decorated
with sculptures, is that they are said to
resemble palaces.

Built in sand stone in Solanki architectural style, the Adalaj stepwell is five stories deep. It is
octagonal (8-sided polygon) in plan at the top, built on intricately carved large number of
pillars. Each floor is spacious enough to provide for people to congregate. [4]It was dug deep
to access ground water at that level, accounting for seasonal fluctuations in water level due
to rainfall over the year. The air and light vents in the roofs at various floors and at the
landing level are in the form of large openings. From the first story level, three staircases
lead to the bottom water level of the well, which is considered a unique feature. Built along
a North-South axis, entrance is from the South, the three staircases are from the South,
West and East directions leading to the landing, which is on the northern side of the well.
Four small rooms withorielwindows decorated with minutely carved brackets are provided
at the landing level, at the four corners. The structural system is typically Indian style with
traditionaltrabeatwith horizontal beams and lintels. At the bottom of the well is a square
stepped floor in the shape of a funnel extending to the lowest plane. This is chiselled into a
circular well. Above the square floor, columns, beams, wall and arched openings spiral
around; a feature that continues to the top. The top part of the well, however, is a vertical
space open to the sky. The four corners of the square are strengthened with stone beams,
set at 45 degrees angle.The motifs of flowers and graphics of Islamic architecture blend
very well with the symbols of Hindu andJaingods carved at various levels of the well. The
dominant carvings on the upper floors are of elephants (3 inches (76mm) in size, each of
different design). The Islamic architectural style could be attributed to the Muslim king
Begda who built it. The walls are carved with women performing daily chores such as
churning of buttermilk, adorning themselves, scenes of performance of dancers and
musicians, and the King overlooking all these activities.

TheColosseum

TheColosseumorColiseum, also
known as theFlavian
Amphitheatreis an elliptical
amphitheatrein the centre of the
city ofRome,Italy. Built ofconcrete
and stone,it is the largest
amphitheatreever built and is
considered one of the greatest works
of architecture and engineering. The
Colosseum is situated just east of
theRoman Forum. Construction
began under the emperorVespasian
in 72 AD,and was completed in 80
AD under his successor and heirTitus
.Further modifications were made
during the reign ofDomitian(8196).
The Colosseum could hold up to
50,000 people, and could be emptied
within ten minutes. The 50,000
people were separated by social
class. They were divided into three
levels; the level that was closest to
the arena floor was reserved for the
senators and the emperor. The

The Colosseum was a massive structure. It covered

over six acres of land, from end to end the Colosseum
was 620 feet long, 513 feet wide, and over 160 feet
tall. To fill and empty such a large building very
quickly would be difficult. The architects came up
with a system of arches and staircases inside the
building. With over 80 archways with multiple sets of
stairs leading to the seats it would easily be emptied
in less than ten minutes. Underneath the seats there
were a labyrinth of corridors and stairs. The
stairways from the first level rose to the second and
third levels. Ordinary citizens would enter the
building through one of seventy six arches. The other
four were reserved for the emperor and his family to
use. This caused the Colosseum to have a very
unique design. The Flavian Amphitheatre has a very
distinct shape. Most amphitheatres are circular, but
the Colosseum was an oval. The Colosseum was
constructed in an oval shape to allow everyone a
good view of the events. When the Colosseum was
first built there was no actual floor, all the events
would happen on the ground. Later inside the
Colosseum a new floor was added. The floor was
wooden with wooden support poles. Each pole had a
hole where the pole would be kept upright. These
wooden poles and boards could be removed for
certain events such as a mock sea battle. Both of the
theories allow for the possibility of a mock sea battle.
There is debate over whether or not a sea battle was
achieved, but there is a definite possibility that water
could have easily flooded the Colosseum.

Eventually people constructed a new floor

which was made of stone poles and a
wooden floor which has rotted away. When
this floor was installed in the Colosseum it
was covered with sand to give the effect of
the original floor. Under the new floor there
was a labyrinth of rooms and passageways
where performers would get ready, and
slaves would raise and lower animals and
people up elevators. The lifts opened into
trapdoors on the floor. The audience could
not see this happening so it gave the
illusion of animals and people coming from
nowhere. There were thirty two trap doors
along the edge of the floor, and each
trapdoor had a lift powered by 250 slaves.
This was a major part of the system which
made the Colosseum such an exciting
attraction to Roman citizens. The Colosseum
was an engineering marvel of the time and
today people are still amazed. People dont
understand the challenges of building an
entire building out of stone without any
modern day tools or equipment. As most
structures do the Colosseum renovated
many times. The Colosseums basement had
many unique features that made the shows
much more exciting. The basement was
another engineering marvel of the time.

Qutub minar
The Qutub Minar is the highest monument
of India and one of the tallest stone
masonry towers in the world. The Qutub
Minar is a typical example of the classical
Indo Islamic architecture. It is made of
sandstone and marble. It directly rests on
a 1.7 m deep square ashlar masonry
platform with sides of approximately 16.5
m, which in turn overlies a 7.6 m deep lime
mortar rubble masonry layer, also square,
with sides of approximately 18.6 m. The
Qutub Minar cross-section is circular, being
the base diameter equal to 14.07 m and
tapering off to a diameter of 3.13 m at the
top, over a height of 72.45 m.
The tower is composed by an external
shell corresponding to a three leaf
masonry wall and a cylindrical central core.
The core and the external shell are
connected by a helicoidal staircase and by
27 bracings composed by stone lintels
with an average cross section of 0.400.40
m2 . The staircase is spiral, disposed
around the central masonry shaft, and it is
made of Delhi quartzite stone. Inside the
tower, a circular staircase with 379 steps,
leads from the bottom to the top storey.

Each storey has a balcony and the

uppermost storey finishes with a
platform. Each storey has different
pattern in construction and
ornamentation. The three storeys of
this amazing tower are painfully
symmetric giving it that dizzying ring
of harmony but on close inspection one
finds that the three stories are
different in their styles. The base
storey consists of alternating circular
and angular flutings, while the second
storey has only the circular flutings. As
opposed to the second storey the third
one has only angular flutings.
The Minar is also provided with
diffuse ventilation openings that can be
divided in some smaller openings on
three levels and larger openings as
windows and doors. In correspondence
with the second and third levels of the
smaller openings the cross section of
the tower decreases almost to 50% of
the total.

 The first floor therefore features

only circular fluting, while the second
floor boasts of triangular fluting only.
These fluting are very precisely
aligned so as to create a highly
symmetrical structure. The minaret
till this part is built of red sandstone
& is calligraphed with bands of
Quranic inscriptions.
The most interesting part in this
monument is the projecting balconies
of the minaret that separate the
different floors. These balconies are
so skilfully constructed out of stone
that they appear like very delicate
bee combs. The details are carved out
so meticulously, adhering to all the
basic principles of geometry & Islamic
architecturalpractices, & even today
the intricate patterns tend to attract
& bind ones gaze. The arches of the
minaret are corbelled in nature the
straight pieces of stone are placed in
order & then their inner corners are
rounded off to give the complete
structure an arch-like appearance.

PARTHENON

The Parthenon was built on extremely

precise dimensions according to the
mathematical ratios of sacred geometry.
Throughout history, the ratio for length to
width of rectangles of 1.61803 39887
49894 84820 has been considered the
most pleasing to the eye. This ratio was
named the golden ratio by the Greeks. In
the world of mathematics, the numeric
value is called "phi", named for the Greek
sculptor Phidias. The space between the
columns forms golden rectangles. There
are golden rectangles throughout this
structure which is found in Athens, Greece.
The rectangular building (measured at the
top step of its base to be 101.34 feet wide
by 228.14 feet long) was constructed of
brilliant white marble, surrounded by 46
great columns, roofed with tiles, and
housed a nearly 40 foot tall statue of the
goddess Athena. The statue, known as
Athena Promachos, Athena the Champion,
was made of wood, gold and ivory and
could be seen from a distance of many
miles.

 The structural beam on top of the

columns is in a golden ratio proportion to
the height of the columns. Note that
each of the grid lines is a golden ratio
proportion of the one below it, so the
third golden ratio grid line from the
bottom to the top at the base of the
support beam represents a length that is
phi cubed, 0.236, from the top of the
beam to the base of the column.
The structural beam on top of the
columns has a horizontal dividing line
that is in golden ratio proportion to the
height of the support beam. The width of
the columns is in a golden ratio
proportion formed by the distance from
the centre line of the columns to the
outside of the columns.
The golden ratio proportions that appear
in the height of the roof support beam
and in the decorative rectangular
sections that run horizontally across it.
The gold colored grids below aregolden
rectangles, with a width to height ratio of
exactly 1.618 to 1.

 The golden ratio proportions that appear in

the height of the roof support beam and in
the decorative rectangular sections that run
horizontally across it. The gold colored grids
below aregolden rectangles, with a width to
height ratio of exactly 1.618 to 1.
Remarkably, although the Parthenon looks
perfectly symmetrical and straight, none of
the angles are right angles, each horizontal
lines rises in its centre, and every vertical
column is thicker in the middle than on the
top and the bottom. When seen by human
eye from a distance, however, these
distortions are reconciled, attesting both to
the Greek notation that true perfection is
ultimately an illusion and to the
sophistication of Athenian engineering and
architecture.
Made of marble, a light reflecting material,
with thinner columns than the prominent
temples that preceded it, the Parthenon had
something of a heavenly aura about it. At
the same time, its predominantly horizontal
design rooted the building firmly in the
human world. In the pediments and on its
other solid surfaces, the Parthenon was
ornamented with relief sculpture originally
painted in opulent colours.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Book: The History Thesaurus
URL: www.google.com, https://
en.wikipedia.org,
http://romancolosseum.org/roman-col
osseum-architecture
/, www.tajmahal.gov.in,
www.gujarattourism.com.

THANK YOU!