LECTURE 13

THE CEMENT INDUSTRY

HISTORY
Cementing materials were used widely in the
ancient world.
Egyptians used calcined gypsum
Greeks and Romans used lime made by heating
limestone and added sand
Romans found a "pozzolanic" cement
In Britain, crushed brick or tile was used.

HISTORY
The Romans were the first to manipulate the
properties of cement materials for specific
applications and situations.
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a Roman architect and
engineer in the 1st century BC wrote "Ten books of
Architecture" - a revealing historical insight into
ancient technology.
Writing about concrete floors
and on pozzolana

HISTORY
After the Romans, there was a general loss in building skills
in Europe, particularly with regard to cement.
Mortars hardened mainly by carbonation of lime, a slow
process.
The use of pozzolana was rediscovered in the late Middle
Ages.

HISTORY
In 18th Century Britain, the interests of industry and empire
coincided, with the need to build lighthouses on exposed
rocks to prevent shipping losses. The constant loss of
merchant ships and warships drove cement technology
forwards.

HISTORY
Smeaton, building a lighthouse (1759) in Southwestern
England, found that a mix of lime, clay and crushed slag from
iron-making produced a mortar which hardened under water.
Joseph Aspdin took out a patent in 1824 for "Portland
Cement a material he produced by firing finely-ground
clay and limestone until the limestone was calcined. He
called it Portland Cement because the concrete made from it
looked like Portland stone, a widely-used building stone in
England.

HISTORY
A ship carrying barrels of Aspdin's cement sank off the Isle
of Sheppey in Kent, England, and the barrels of set cement
were later incorporated into a pub in Sheerness and are still
there now.
A few years later (1845), Isaac Johnson made the first
modern Portland Cement by firing a mixture of chalk and clay
at much higher temperatures, similar to those used today. At
1400C-1500C, clinkering occurs and minerals form which
are very reactive and more strongly cementitious.

HISTORY
3 important developments in the manufacturing process that
led to modern Portland cement:
Development of rotary kilns
Addition of gypsum to control setting
Use of ball mills to grind clinker and raw materials

HISTORY
Rotary kilns gradually replaced the original vertical
shaft kilns used for making lime from the 1890s.
Gypsum addition to control setting and the use of ball
mills to grind the clinker were introduced at around the
end of the 19th century.

USES

USES
Cement surrounds us every day.
reinforced concrete, building blocks, mortar, roads, paving, roof
tiles, floors, bricks, bridges, tunnels, parking, canals, dams, tanks,
pools, piers, irrigation
At least 99% of cement is used in construction.
Portland cements are used for dealing with nuclear waste and
cleaning up contaminated ground.

USES
Aluminate cements are used for heat-resistant materials.
Various different cements are used by dentists, and cements
that mimic the chemistry of bones are used in the reconstruction
of damaged skulls and spines.
Artists use cement to
make prize-winning
sculptures.

ECONOMICS OF THE CEMENT

INDUSTRY IN THE PHILIPPINES

SALES AND IMPORTS OF CEMENT

FROM 2001 TO 2011 (MILLION OF
TONS)

CEMENT IMPORTS FROM 2001

TO 2011 (IN METRIC TONS)

CEMENT EXPORTS FROM

2001 TO 2011 (IN METRIC
TONS)

2011 CEMENT INDUSTRY

STATISTICS
Total sales:

Php 15,595 million

Demand consumption:
Total production:

15,625 million tons

16,063 million tons

Total kiln capacity:

21,047 million tons

Total grinding capacity:

26,911 million tons

Public construction:

Php 101,902 million

Private construction:

Php 368,400 million

Current cement price:

Php 200 to 230/bag

THE BIG PLAYERS IN

THE PHILIPPINES
Solid Cement Corporation (CEMEX Philippines Group of
Companies)
Plant Locations: Antipolo City, Rizal & Binangonan, Rizal
Brand

Type

Island

Type I

Apo

Type I

Rizal

Type IP

Apo Premium

Type IP

Apo Pozzolan

Type P

Palitada King

Masonry

THE BIG PLAYERS IN THE

PHILIPPINES
Apo Cement Corporation (CEMEX Philippines Group of
Companies)
Plant Location: Antipolo City, Rizal
Brand

Type

Island

Type I

Apo

Type I

Rizal

Type IP

Apo Premium

Type IP

Apo Pozzolan

Type P

Palitada King

Masonry

THE BIG PLAYERS IN THE

PHILIPPINES
Holcim Philippines, Inc.
Plant Locations: Bacnotan, La Union; Norzagaray, Bulacan,
Luggit; Misamis Oriental; & Bo. Illang, Davao City

Brand

Type

Holcim Premium

Type I

Holcim 4X (Bulk)

Type I

Holcim WallRight

Masonry T-S

Holcim Excel

Type IP

Holcim Super Durable

Type II

THE BIG PLAYERS IN THE

PHILIPPINES
Republic Cement Corporation (Lafarge Associated
Companies)
Plant Locations: Norzagaray, Bulacan (2), Taysan, Batangas;
& Teresa, Rizal

Brand

Type

Republic

Type I (Bag & Bulk)

Republic

Type IP

Republic

Type P

Republic

Type II

THE BIG PLAYERS IN THE

PHILIPPINES
Iligan Cement Corporation/Mindanao Portland Cement
Corporation
Plant Location: Barrio Kiwalan, Illigan City
Brand

Type

Mindanao

Type I

Mindanao

Type IP

Mindanao

Type P

CEMENT VARIANTS

NON-HYDRAULIC
CEMENT
In must be kept dry in order to retain its strength
Takes a longer time to dry off and gain strength after being set
Problem: requires to made in dry weather conditions (if it
rains, and the non-hydraulic cement has not finished setting,
then it is ruined)
Example: plaster of Paris

Non-hydraulic cement is
cement which cannot
harden while in contact
with water.

HYDRAULIC CEMENT
Any cement that turns into a solid product in the presence of
water, resulting in a material that does not disintegrate in
water
Produces non water-soluble hydrates when anhydrous
cement powder is mixed with water
Sets and hardens by action of water
Example: Portland cement

TYPES OF CEMENT
Basic composition of cements used for construction:
Portland (Type I)

96% clinker
4% gypsum
Pozzolan (Type P)

77% clinker
20% pozzolan
3% gypsum

In the manufacture of
Portland cement, clinker
is lumps or nodules, usually 3
25 mm in diameter, produced by
sintering
limestone and alumino-silicate (
clay) during the
cement kiln stage.

TYPES OF CEMENT
Masonry (Type N, S & M)

Portland cement
Blending hydraulic cement
Plasticizing materials
Limestone
Hydrated or hydraulic lime

PORTLAND CEMENT

PORTLAND CEMENT
Chemical composition
Tricalcium silicate
Hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and early
strength

Tricalcium silicate + Water Calcium silicate hydrate + Calcium

hydroxide + heat
2 Ca3SiO5 + 7 H2O 3 CaO.2SiO2.4H2O + 3 Ca(OH)2 + 173.6kJ

PORTLAND CEMENT
Chemical composition
Dicalcium silicate
Hardens slowly but is responsible for the cements long-term
strength

Dicalcium silicate + Water Calcium silicate hydrate + Calcium

hydroxide + heat
2 Ca2SiO4 + 5 H2O 3 CaO.2SiO2.4H2O + Ca(OH)2 + 58.6 kJ

PORTLAND CEMENT
Chemical composition

Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
Lowers clinkering temperature and acts as
filler; responsible for the gray color in cement
Tricalcium aluminate
First compound that will hydrate, contributes to
faster gain in strength
Though is susceptible to sulfate attacks
Gypsum

COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND
CEMENT WITH CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION AND WEIGHT PERCENT
Cement Compound

Weight Percentage

Chemical Formula

Tricalcium silicate

50%

Ca3SiO5 or 3CaO.SiO2

Dicalcium silicate

25%

Ca2SiO4 or 2CaO.SiO2

Tricalcium aluminate

10%

Ca3Al2O6 or 3CaO .Al2O3

Tetracalcium aluminoferrite

10%

Ca4Al2Fe2O10 or
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3

Gypsum

5%

CaSO4.2H2O

TYPICAL CONCRETE MIX

Component

Percent by Weight

Portland Cement

12%

Sand

34%

Crushed Stone

48%

Water

6%

RAW MATERIALS
Lime
Silica
Alumina
Iron oxide
Gypsum

RAW MATERIALS AVAILABLE

IN THE PHILIPPINES
Limestone
Shale/sandstone
Siliceous sand
Lime
Diorite
Gypsum

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

MANUFACTURING OF
PORTLAND CEMENT
Feed
Lime from limestone or chalk
Silica & alumina from clay, shale or bauxite
Iron oxide
Preparation
Produce a finely-divided mixture of raw materials
Chemical reaction
Must be heated to produce a chemical composition

MANUFACTURE OF
PORTLAND CEMENT
Two main processes

Wet Process
Dry Process
Burning in cement
kiln

CEMENT KILN

CEMENT KILN

WET PROCESS
1. Raw materials are first homogenized by crushing,
grinding and blending
2. The mix will be turned into slurry by adding in about
30 to 40% water into the mixture
3. Then the mixture is subjected to heat at the
temperature of about 1,510C in horizontallyrevolving kilns that are about 76 to 153 meters length
and 3.6 to 4.8 meters in diameter
4. Natural gas, petroleum or coal used for the heating
process

WET PROCESS FLOW

CHART

DRY PROCESS
Same as the Wet process, the mix must be
homogenized as well by crushing, grinding
and blending
Water would not be added, unlike the Wet
process
The mixture is then fed into kiln and
heated/burned in a dry state

DRY VS. WET

PROCESS
Wet process
This process is much more expensive than
the Dry process because of the large fuel
consumption required
Dry process
Dustier and less efficient

WET AND DRY PROCESS

FLOW CHART

DRY AND WET

PROCESS
In the kiln, water from the raw materials
disappears and the limestone is decomposed to
lime and CO2

Limestone Lime + CO2

In the burning/heating part of the process, a
portion of the kiln, silica and alumina from clay
undergoes a chemical reaction with lime to
produce calcium aluminate
Silica + Alumina + Lime Calcium aluminate

DRY AND WET

PROCESS
The rotation, shape and angle of the kiln allows the
mixture to flow down the kiln, subjecting it to gradually
increasing temperature
As the mixture moves into the hotter regions of the
kiln, calcium silicates are formed (Calcination reaction)
These calcium silicate products look like small gray
stones and are more commonly known as cement
clinkers
Cement clinkers are hard, irregular and round-shaped
solids that are about 18mm in diameter

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
OF ROTARY KILN

CEMENT CLINKERS
Cement clinkers are formed
by the heat processing of
cement elements in a kiln

DRY AND WET

PROCESS
The cement clinkers are cooled down to about
50C and are stored in cement clinker silos
Sometimes, the clinkers are mixed with 2 to 5%
gypsum to retard the setting time of cement
when it is mixed with water
The clinkers are then grinded in fine powder and
are either stored in bins or cement silos or
bagged. Its important to store them in dry
places.

CEMENT SILO

FLOW DIAGRAM OF PORTLAND

CEMENT PRODUCTION

BY
PRODUCTS

CEMENT PLANT BYPRODUCTS

Fly ash

A fine, powder-like material collected by the

particulate matter control devices at coal-burning
power plants
Depending on the component, fly ash can be
blended into the final cement product or used at the
ready-mixed concrete plant

FLY ASH

CEMENT PLANT BYPRODUCTS

Bottom ash

Collected in the bottom of coal furnaces at electric

power plants
The ash is a dark-gray or black, sand-like material
Boiler slag

Retained as a molten material in wet bottom

boilers, and is discharged into quenching water
where it crystallizes and fractures into black glassy
pellets

BOTTOM ASH

BOILER SLAG

CEMENT PLANT BYPRODUCTS

Flue gas desulfurization materials

Reacted lime or limestone with gaseous sulfur to

form calcium sulfate or calcium sulfite
Is also called synthetic gypsum
If properly processed, this calcium sulfate can be
used at Portland cement plants to replace natural
gypsum that must be added to the final product to
control setting of concrete

SYNTHETIC GYPSUM

ENVIRONMENTAL AND OTHER

CONSIDERATIONS

ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSIDERATIONS
The cement industry is one of the two primary producers of
CO2 (green house gas)

CO2 is formed when calcium carbonate is thermally

decomposed, producing lime and carbon dioxide
Contributes to about 5% of the world-wide manmade emissions

SAFETY
CONSIDERATIONS
Cement is highly alkaline, but the setting process is
exothermic so as a result, wet cement is strongly caustic
Can cause severe skin burn
Similarly, dry cement powder should never come in contact
with mucous membranes, which can cause severe respiratory
irritation
Those in constant contact with cement should wear protective
clothing and gear

REFERENCES
http://sci301.uvi.eduhttp://matse1.matse.illinois.edu
http://www.understanding-cement.com
http://www.mb.com.ph
http://www.engineering.leeds.ac.uk
www.cement.org
www.wikipedia.org
www.dti.gov.ph
www.cemap.org.ph
www.civildigital.com
www.kutztown.edu
www2.ce.metu.edu.tr
www.buildinggreen.com