EAT 207 Lecture 6 Chapter 4 - Primary Treatment (Coagulation and Rapi

School of Environmental Engineering
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS
PRIMARY TREATMENT
(COAGULATION AND RAPID MIXING)

OUTLINE
Coagulation:
Coagulation Mechanisms
Types of coagulants
Coagulant dosage
Rapid Mixing
Types of mixer
Design of mixer

Introduction
After the raw water has been screened and has passed
through the aeration process, it is ready for coagulation
and flocculation.
Coagulation and flocculation are principally preparations
of a water for sedimentation and filtration at
economically high rates of flow.
Coagulation/flocculation will remove colloidal and
suspended solids from water.
Coagulation = Charge reduction

Flocculation = Contact of particles

Coagulation and Rapid Mixing

Coagulation
Introduction;
Coagulation is the process of adding chemicals to water to
collect particulate matter and colloids into flocs that can be
removed from the water by sedimentation and filtration.
Coagulation reduces the net electrical repulsive forces at
particle surfaces by adding coagulant chemicals.
Contaminants Removal - depends on the nature and
concentration of contaminants .
Coagulation process - physically occurs in a rapid mixing
process.

Coagulation

Purpose of Coagulation Process

The main purpose of the coagulation process;
To destabilize particles and enable them to become
attached to each other, so that they can be removed in
subsequent processes.
The others purpose of the coagulation process;
To remove turbidity from water.
To remove some bacteria which are suspended in the
water and
to remove color from the water.

Coagulation Mechanisms
1.
Double layer compression

Addition of chemical coagulants to water shrinks
the layer of charged ions around the particle. If
reduced enough, the attraction Van der Waals force
can overcome repulsive electrical force.
2.
Charge neutralization
Adding positively charged ions that adsorb to
particle surface can reduce surface charge and
repulsion.

Coagulation Mechanisms (continued..)

3.
Entrapment in precipitate
Al3+ and Fe3+ salts added at right pH will precipitate as
flocs with colloids as nuclei.
4.
Particle bridging
Large organic molecules (both anion and cation) attach
to multiple particles bridging them.
Note:
Once particles are coagulated, they can be flocculated.
Negatively charged particles repel

each other due to electrostatic force.
Positively charged coagulants attract to

negatively charged particles due to
electrostatic force.
Neutrally charged particles attract due to

van der Waal's forces
Particles and coagulants join

together to form floc.

What is Colloidal Particles?

Colloids are small particles that will not settle and remain in
stable condition.
Usually less than 1 micron (m).
Particulates in water source contribute to color and
turbidity.
Mainly clays, silts, viruses, bacteria, and organic
particulates.
At pH levels above 4.0, particulates or molecules are
generally negatively charged.
Have a very large ratio of surface area to volume.
Stability of colloids is controlled by electrostatic forces; van
der Waals forces and Brownian motion.

Factors Affected Coagulation Process

Alkalinity - needed to provide anions, such as (OH) for
forming insoluble compounds to precipitate.
- Generally 1 part alum uses 0.5 parts alkalinity for proper
coagulation
Adjustment of pH - Water with a color will coagulate better
at low pH (4.4 - 6) with alum.
Temperature - The higher the temperature, the faster the
reaction, and the more effective is the coagulation.
Time - Proper mixing and detention times are very
important to coagulation.

Coagulant Chemical
Coagulant chemicals have a positive charged ions.

The positive charge of the coagulant neutralizes the
negative charges of dissolved and suspended particles
in the water.
Some coagulants contain ions with more positive
charges than others.
Those consist of trivalent ions (Al3+ and Fe3+) are more
effective as coagulants.

Coagulant Chemical (continued..)

The most commonly used coagulants are:
1.
Alum (Aluminum sulfate), Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
2.
Most common coagulant used

Often used in conjunction with cationic polymer
When alum is added to water, it reacts with the water and
results in positively charged ions.
Ferric chloride, FeCl3
More effective than alum in some application (color, taste,

odor removal)
But more corrosion than alum
Requires special facilities for storage and handling.


3.
Ferrous sulfate, Fe(SO)4
4.
Cheaper than alum

No corrosiveness to the water
If excess lime is used, the water may require treatment for
stabilization.
Cationic polymers
Can be used alone as the primary coagulant or in conjunction

with aluminum or iron coagulants.
More effective at low temperature
Faster floc formation
Savings in pH adjustment chemical

Coagulant Storage

Most waters in Malaysia have insufficient natural

alkalinity to react with alum.
Chemicals are added to react with alum to form
aluminum hydroxide floc.
The chemicals usually used are lime and sodium
carbonate (or soda ash).
If alkalinity < 30 mg/L, lime must be used to supply the
deficiency in calcium.
Soda ash is more expensive and corrosion than lime,
thus is not often used.
Coagulant Dosage
Jar Tests:
Widely used to determine optimum chemical dosage.
Must be performed on each water that is to be coagulated.
Must be repeated with each significant change in the quality of
a given water.
Test results are used to calculate the quantity of coagulant to
be used in the water treatment plant.
Coagulant
Dosage (mg/L)
Optimum pH
Aluminium sulfate
10 - 50
5.5 - 8.0
Sodium aluminate
10 - 30
Ferric sulfate
10 - 50
5.5 - 11.0
Ferrous sulfate
5 - 25
5.5 - 11.0

Coagulant Dosing Point

To ensure efficient mixing, coagulants must be dosed at the correct points.
The coagulants should be dosed at;
Just before the throats of mixing flumes;
The napes of the overflow of weirs;
The inlet chambers of flash mixers or
The inlet chambers of mechanical mixers.
Coagulation Reaction
Coagulation using Aluminum sulfate (alum):
Al2 ( SO4 ) 3 .18 H 2O 3Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 2 Al (OH )3 3CaSO4 6CO2 18 H 2O

(MW = 666)
(Alum)
(MW = 300*
As CaCO3)
(Natural alkalinity)
(MW = 2x78)
(Aluminum
hydroxide
Floc)
ately
m
i
x
o
r
p
p
oduce a
r
p
l
l
i
w
I(OH) 3
um
l
A
a
e
f
l
o
b
u
g
l
1m
f inso
o
g
m
6
2
nsume
0.
o
c
ll
i
w
s and
e
t
a
t
lkalinity
i
A
p
i
f
c
o
g
pre
0.51 m
y
l
e
t
a
m
i
O 3)
approx
(as CaC
Coagulation Reaction
Coagulation using alum + lime:

Al2 ( SO4 )3 .18 H 2O 3Ca (OH ) 2 2 Al (OH ) 3 3CaSO4 18 H 2O
(Alum)
(Lime )
(Floc)
Coagulation using alum + soda ash:
Al2 ( SO4 )3 .18H 2O 3Na2CO3 3H 2O 2 Al (OH )3 3 Na2 SO4 3CO3 18 H 2O

(Alum)
(Soda ash)
(Floc)
Coagulation Reaction (continued..)
Coagulation using ferric sulfate:

Fe2 ( SO4 ) 3 3Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 2 Fe(OH ) 3 ( s ) 3CaSO4 6CO2
(MW = 400)
(MW = 300*
As CaCO3)
(MW = 2x107)
(Floc)
ately
im
x
o
r
p
p
duce a
o
r
p
l
l
i
w
OH) 3
ulfate
(
s
e
c
F
i
r
e
r
l
e
b
f
f insolu
1 mg of
o
g
m
4
5
nsume
0.
o
c
ll
i
w
s and
e
t
a
t
lkalinity
i
A
p
i
f
c
o
g
pre
0.75 m
y
l
e
t
a
m
i
O 3)
approx
(as CaC

Example #1:
A water treatment plant designed for a flow 20,000 m3/day is expected to
use alum at rate of 20 mg/L. Determine the quantity of alum required for a
month supply?
Solution:
(1 m3 = 1000 L)
Quantity of Alum required for 1 day,
= 20,000 m3/day x 1000 L/m3 x 20 mg/L
= 4 X 108 mg/day
Quantity of Alum required for 1 month,
= 4 X 108 mg/day x 30 day
= 1.2 X 1010 mg per month
Example #2:
A water with low alkalinity of 12 mg/L as CaCO 3 will be treated
with the alum-lime coagulation. Alum dosage is 55 mg/L.
Determine the lime dosage needed to react with alum.
Solution:
Step 1: Write the reactions equation and calculate MW.
Al2 ( SO4 ) 3 .18 H 2O 3Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 2 Al (OH )3 3CaSO4 6CO2 18 H 2O

(Alum)
(Floc)
MW of CaCO3
= 40.08 + 12 + 3(16) = 100.1
MW of Ca(HCO3)2
= 40.08 + 2 (1 + 12 + 48) = 162.1
MW of Al2(SO4)3.18H2O = (27 x 2) + 3 (32 + 4 x 16) + 18 (2 +16)
= 666
Example #2: (Continued)

Step 2: Determine the amount of alum needed to react with natural
alkalinity.
Natural Alkalinity = 12 mg/L as CaCO3 x 162.1 as Ca(HCO3)2
100.1 as CaCO3
= 19.4 mg/L as Ca(HCO3)2

From reactions equation;
1 mole of alum reacts with 3 moles of Ca(HCO3)2 .
Therefore,
The quantity of alum to react with natural alkalinity (Y);
= 19.4 mg/L as Ca(HCO3)2 x
= 26.6 mg/L
1 x 666 as alum
3 x 162.1 as Ca(HCO3)2

Step 3: Calculate the lime required.
The amount of alum remaining to react with lime is ( dosage - Y );
55 mg/L - 26.6 mg/L = 28.4 mg/L
MW of Ca(OH)2 = 40.1 + 2 (16 + 1) = 74.1
MW of CaO = 40.1 + 16 = 56.1
Write reactions equation for alum reacts with lime;
Al2 ( SO4 ) 3 .18H 2O 3Ca (OH ) 2 2 Al (OH )3 3CaSO4 18H 2O

(Alum)
(Lime)
(Floc)

From reactions equation;
1 mole of alum reacts with 3 moles of Ca(OH)2.
Ca(OH)2 required = 28.4 mg/L alum x
3 x 74.1 Ca(OH)2
666 alum
= 9.48 mg/L as Ca(OH)2

Dosage of lime required;
= 9.48 mg/L as Ca(OH)2 x
56.1 as CaO
74.1 as Ca(OH)2
= 7.2 mg/L as CaO

Rapid Mix or Flash Mix

Introduction:
Coagulation requires initial rapid dispersion of chemical
throughout water and quick formation precipitates under
extremely violent agitation.
The most important physical operation affecting
coagulant dose efficiency.
Occurs in a small basin immediately preceding or at the
head of the coagulation basin.
Purpose of rapid mixing: To provide a complete and
uniform dispersion of coagulant chemical added to the
water.

Rapid Mix Basin

Rapid Mixing
Rapid mixing can be accomplished with:
Tank utilizing a vertical shaft mixer
Pipe using an in-line blender
Pipe using a static mixer

Coagulation
Rapid Mix (continued..)
Types of mixers by energy sources (method of agitation):

- Electrical/mechanical energy: mechanical mixers (flume mixer).
- Hydraulic energy: static mixers, weirs, flash mixer etc.

Rapid Mix (Continued)

Mechanical mixers:
Utilizes a mechanical mixer with an impeller or propeller
to create turbulence in the mixing chamber.
Types of mixers by flow directions:
Radial flow or turbine impeller mixers: perpendicular to the axis of
rotation.
Axial flow pitched-blade mixers: parallel to the axis of rotation.
Type of impeller used in rapid mixer depend on;
Geometry of the basin
Flow pattern desired within the basin
Coagulation

Mechanical Mixers:
- Radial flow impellers or turbine impellers
- Force water outward at right angles to the axis of rotation


Mechanical Mixers:
- Axial flow mixers - force water parallel to the axis of rotation.


Static mixers:
Create turbulent by the use of hydraulic jumps, baffles, turbulent
flow in a pipeline or channel, or contractions or enlargements in a
pipeline.
Comparison of Mechanical and Static Mixers:
Mixer Type
Mechanical mixers
Static mixers
Advantages
Agitation independent
of flow rate
Agitation is adjustable
High flexibility in operation
Little or no maintenance
very reliable
Disadvantages
Additional equipment
required for maintenance
Reliability subject to
equipment failure
Agitation dependent on
flow rate
High head loss
Less flexibility in operation

Mechanical Radial Flow

Typical flow pattern in radial
flow mechanically mixed
unit.
Hydraulic Jump
Typical rapid mixing
utilizing a hydraulic jump.


The types of mixers recommended for use in the different sizes of
treatment plant.
Types of Mixers and their Use

Capacity of plant
Mixing Devices
Less than 25.0 MLD
Mixing Flume
25.0 - 45.0 MLD
Weir
45.0 - 90.0 MLD
Flash mixer
More than 90.0 MLD
Mechanical mixer


Design consideration:
Raw water characteristics

Type and sequence of chemicals fed.
Local condition
Variations in plant flow rate
Downstream treatment units.
Costs.


Agitation requirement
Velocity gradient, G : an indicator of the degree of agitation or
energy input to the water.
P
V
-- Equation (1)
Where,
G = velocity gradient, s-1 (typically G = 700 to 1000s-1)
P = power input to the water, N-m/s or kg.m2/s3 or Watt
V = volume of basin, m3
= dynamic viscosity of the fluid, N-s/m2 or kg/m.s


Agitation requirements (continued):
Power input to the water can be calculated from the
following equations:
(a) Under the laminar flow condition: (NR < 10)
P NP n 2 d 3
-- Equation (2)
(b) Under the turbulent flow condition: (NR > 10,000)
P NP n 3 d 5
-- Equation (3)
g
Where,
Np = power number of the impeller (by manufacturer)
n = impeller speed, rps
d = diameter of the impeller, m
= water density, N/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
= dynamic viscosity of water, N-s/m2


Power Number of
Impeller (by
Manufacturer)

Reynolds Number (NR) for rapid mixers:
d 2 n
d 2 n
NR
or
g
The velocity gradient for mixing basin utilizing flow-induced

turbulence;
h1
G
g hL

t
-- Equation (4)
Where,
hL = Total head loss through the mixer, m
t = detention time, s
Detention time, t V
Where;
t = Average detention time, min
Q = flow rate, m3/min
V = Volume of the tank, m3
-- Equation (5)


Example #1:
Calculate power and rotation speed required for the
mixer based on the following information:
Chamber dimensions = 1.9m x 1.9m x 2.9m (deep)
G = 950 s-1
= 1.518 x 10-3 N-s/m2 at 5 C
Assuming that the impeller diameter is the width of
the basin and the power number Np = 2.75

Solution (Example #1):
Calculate the volume of the mixer,
V = 1.9m x 1.9m x 2.9m = 10.5 m3
Rearrange the Equation (1) and calculate the power required,
P = G2V
= (950 s-1)2 x 10.5 m3 x 1.518 x 10-3 N-s/m2
= 1.44 x 104 N-m/s (W)
= 14.4 kN-m/s (kW)
Assume turbulent flow condition and rearrange the Equation (3) to
calculate the rotation speed required,
1
P g
5
N Pd
Impeller diameter, d
1
3
14.4 10 N - m/s
9.81 m/s
5
3
3
9.81 10 N/m
2.75 (0.95 m)
1.89 rps (or 113 rpm)
1
3
W
2
1
1.9 m 0.95 m
2

Solution (Continued)
Check the Reynolds number,
NR nd 2
3
3
9
.
81
10
N
/
m
1.89 rps (0.95m)2
1.518 10 3 N - s / m2 9.81 m / s2
1.10 10 6 10,000
Therefore turbulent condition exists.

Example #2
Calculate the actual basin volume and detention time for rapid mix basins
based on the following information:
Total flow, Q = 113,500 m3/d
Number of basins = 4
Detention time = 30 s
Assume the basins are square with a ratio of depth to width = 1.5

Solution (Example #2)
Calculate flow to each basin,
m 3 1 day
1 hr
1 min
113,500
d 24 hr 60 min 60 s 0.328 m3 /s
Q
4 basins
Calculate volume required for each basin,
Vreq = Q x treq = 0.328 m3/s x 30 s = 9.84 m3
Based on the assumed basin geometry information,

Given: D/W = 1.5, D = 1.5W and L = W (square size)
Vreq = L x W x D = W x W x (1.5W) = 1.5W3 = 9.84 m3

Solution (Continued)
Solve for basin width, W
3
9
.
84
m
W 3
1.87 m
1.5
Take,
W = L = 1.9 m
Calculate basin depth, D,

D = 1.5W = 1.5 x 1.9 m = 2.9 m
Calculate actual volume provided, Vact. (for each basin)
Vact. = L x W x D = 1.9 m x 1.9 m x 2.9 m = 10.5 m3
Calculate actual detention time provided, tact (for each basin)
Vact.
10.5 m 3
tact.
32 s
3
Q
0.328 m /s
Common Coagulation and Flocculation Problems:

EAT 207 Lecture 6 Chapter 4 - Primary Treatment (Coagulation and Rapi

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School of Environmental Engineering

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PERLIS

School of Environmental Engineering

School of Environmental Engineering

Coagulation = Charge reduction

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Coagulation and Rapid Mixing

School of Environmental Engineering

School of Environmental Engineering

School of Environmental Engineering

Purpose of Coagulation Process

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Double layer compression

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Coagulation Mechanisms (continued..)

Negatively charged particles repel

Positively charged coagulants attract to

Neutrally charged particles attract due to

Particles and coagulants join

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What is Colloidal Particles?

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Factors Affected Coagulation Process

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Coagulant chemicals have a positive charged ions.

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Coagulant Chemical (continued..)

Alum (Aluminum sulfate), Al2(SO4)3.14H2O

Most common coagulant used

Ferric chloride, FeCl3

More effective than alum in some application (color, taste,

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Coagulant Chemical (continued..)

Ferrous sulfate, Fe(SO)4

Cheaper than alum

Can be used alone as the primary coagulant or in conjunction

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Coagulant Chemical (continued..)

Most waters in Malaysia have insufficient natural

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Coagulant Dosing Point

Coagulation using Aluminum sulfate (alum):

Al2 ( SO4 ) 3 .18 H 2O 3Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 2 Al (OH )3 3CaSO4 6CO2 18 H 2O

Coagulation using alum + lime:

Coagulation using alum + soda ash:

Al2 ( SO4 )3 .18H 2O 3Na2CO3 3H 2O 2 Al (OH )3 3 Na2 SO4 3CO3 18 H 2O

Coagulation Reaction (continued..)

Coagulation using ferric sulfate:

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Al2 ( SO4 ) 3 .18 H 2O 3Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 2 Al (OH )3 3CaSO4 6CO2 18 H 2O

Example #2: (Continued)

= 19.4 mg/L as Ca(HCO3)2

Example #2: (Continued)

Al2 ( SO4 ) 3 .18H 2O 3Ca (OH ) 2 2 Al (OH )3 3CaSO4 18H 2O

Example #2: (Continued)

= 9.48 mg/L as Ca(OH)2

= 7.2 mg/L as CaO

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Rapid Mix or Flash Mix

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Rapid Mix Basin