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CONSTRUCTIO
N
III
HEAVY REINFORCED CONCRETE, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE AND STEEL
CONSTRUCTION
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
b. Stepped footings
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
STRIP FOOTINGS
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
STEPPED FOOTINGS
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
3. Combined footings.
a. Combined footings. supporting two or more columns. This type of
footing is used where it is not possible to center the footing beneath its
supported column as in the case of columns located at or very near the
property line. In such case, the nearest interior column is selected and
a combined footing constructed under both columns.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
c. Continuous footings.
These may be:
1. supporting a line of columns
2. supporting all of the columns by
strips at right angles to each
other.
L/4
L/5
L/4
L/4
L/4
L/5
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
3.1.2
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
Building Protection
Systems
REINFORCED CONCRETE
PILE CAP
Pile Cap 1. A slab or connecting beam which covers the heads of a group of piles, tying them together so that the structural
load is distributed and they act as a single unit. 2. A metal cap which is placed, as temporary protection, over the head of
a precast pile while it is being driven into the ground.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
END BEARING
PILES
FRICTION PILES
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
A. WOOD PILES
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Pile Ring also called a drive band; a steel band which encircles the head of a timber pile to prevent it from splitting when being
driven.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
In driving in soft and silty soils, the piles drive better with a square point. When
driven into compact soil, such as sand, gravel, or stiff clay, the point of the
pile should be shod with iron or steel. This is usually in the form of a cast
conical point about 5 in. in dia., secured by a long dowel with a ring
around the end of the pile.
Piles that are driven in or exposed to salt water should be thoroughly
impregnated with creosote, dead oil or coal-tar, or some mineral poison to
protect them from teredo or shipworm which will completely honeycomb
an ordinary pile in three or four years.
Piles should not be spaced less than 2 ft. on centers; usual spacing is from 2 to
3 ft. When long piles are driven closer than 2 ft. on centers, there is
danger that they may force each other up from their solid bed on bearing
stratum. Driving the piles close together also breaks up the ground and
diminishes the bearing power. Maximum allowable load on wood piles is
usually 20 tons.
The top of the piles should be cut off at or below the low water mark, otherwise
they will soon commence to decay. They should then be capped, either
with concrete, or with timber or steel grillage. The usual practice is to use
the reinforced-concrete cap, the method being to excavate 6 to 12 below
the tops and one foot outside of the piles. Concrete is then placed around
and above the piles. Approximately 3 above the top of the piles a layer or
reinforcement running in both directions is placed. Caps are usually 18 or
more in thickness.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy timber grillages may also be used for capping. These are bolted to
the top of the piles and the concrete footings laid on top of it. The
timbers for the grillages should be at least 10 x 10 in cross-section,
and should have sufficient transverse strength to sustain the load
from center to center of piles. They should be laid longitudinally on
top of the piles and fastened to them by means of driftbolts. The
advantages of timber grillage are that it can be easily laid and
effectually holds the top of piles in place. It also tends to distribute the
pressure evenly over the piles, as the transverse strength of the
timber will help to carry the load over a single pile, which for some
reason, may not have the same bearing capacity as the others.
Where timber grillage is used, it should be kept entirely below the lowest
recorded water line, as otherwise it will rot and allow the building to
settle.
Steel beams embedded in concrete are also sometimes used to distribute
the weight over piles, but this is too expensive a method to be
commonly used.
Driftbolt a short rod or square bar driven into holes bored in timber, for attaching adjacent sticks to each other or to piles; varies
from 1 to 2 ft (300 x 600 mm) in length; often provided with a head or with a sharpened end; also called a drift or driftpin.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
B. CONCRETE PILES
Concrete Piles. Concrete piles, either plain or reinforced, possess many
advantages over wooden piles and, in general, can be used in all places
where wooden piles can be driven. Concrete piles are generally used
where wooden piles would be subject to decay or deterioration by the
action of marine worms. They are especially advantageous for
foundations on land where the permanent ground water is at a
considerable depth. Wooden piles must cut of under water as, when
subjected to an atmosphere which is alternately wet and dry, they will
decay. This is unnecessary with concrete piles, and foundations under
such conditions need not start so low as would be the case if timber
piles were used.
In practice concrete piles are generally reinforced. Reinforced-concrete piles
are of two general types: those molded in place and those molded
before driving. Spacing for concrete piles usually from 2 6 to 4.
Concrete piles are extended at least 4 into the concrete of the footing,
and where a steel casing surrounds the pile, 3 to 4 in. of concrete is
required between the top of the piles and the footing reinforcement,
unless the casing is trimmed back at a distance, in which case the case
reinforcement is allowed to lie directly upon the butts of the piles.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
1. PRE-CAST PILES
Pre-cast Piles These are usually moulded
in a yard or at the site allowed to cure for 4
weeks before using. In driving, a pre-cast
pile is provided with a cast-iron point, and a
driving head is used in which a cushion of
sand, rope or other material is placed
between a driving block of wood and the
concrete in order to prevent the crushing of
the pile. Concrete piles are often sunk by
means of water-jet. This method is made
possibly by inserting an iron pipe in the
center of the pile.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
2. CAST-IN-PLACE PILES
Cast-in-place Piles Cast in place piles are constructed in the ground in
the position they are to occupy, and are often reinforced. Practically all
cast in place piles are covered by patents.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
A steel tube is fitted at the bottom with a driving point and is driven into the
ground to the required depth. Concrete is then poured into the hole thus
formed as the steel tube is gradually withdrawn. The driving point may be
either a conical cast-iron point that is left in place or a hinged cutting-edge
called an alligator point which opens as the tube is withdrawn, e.g.
Simplex piles. This is called an uncased pile.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
A steel pipe or shell is first driven into the ground. The steel driving core is
then removed and the bottom of the shell is filled with concrete to a height of
about 5 ft. from the bottom. Pressure is then applied to force out the concrete
into the surrounding soil as the core is withdrawn. These are known as
pedestal piles.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
C. STEEL PILES
Steel-pipe Piles. These are concrete-filled
steel pipes which are made to bear on
rock or hard pan. The pipes are generally
10 to 18 inches in diameter, having a
thickness of 3/8 to 5/8 inches. The pipe is
driven in sections with a steam-hammer
and, as additional sections are required,
these are attached to the driven section by
means of a cast-iron or steel internal
sleeve and re-driven.
When the pipe has reached its bearing level it is cleaned out by blowing or
dug out by means of augers or similar tools. The pipe is then pumped out
and concreted.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
D. COMPOSITE PILES
Composite Piles.
These are combination
timber and concrete or
steel and concrete piles.
They may be composed
of timber piles with
concrete coatings held
in position by steel
reinforcements in the
shape of expanded
metal or wire netting.
The latter are to be
considered as timber,
rather than concrete,
piles.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
2. CAISSON FOUNDATIONS
Caissons are cast-in-place, plain or reinforced concrete piers formed by
boring with a large auger or excavating by hand a shaft in the earth to a
suitable bearing stratum and filling the shaft with concrete. For this reason
they are also referred to as drilled piles or piers.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement 3.2
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
FOUNDATION WALLS
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement 3.2
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
BASEMENT WALLS
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement 3.2
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
SECTION OF CISTERN
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
3.3
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
3.3
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Lateral tiles shall be at least 3/8 (10 mm) diameter and shall be spaced
apart not over than 16 bar diameters, 48 tie diameters, or the least
dimension of the column. Where there are more than four vertical bars,
additional ties should be provided so that every longitudinal bar will be
firmly held in its designed position. The reinforcement for tied columns
shall be protected by a covering of concrete, cast monolithically with the
core, of at least 1-1/2 (38 mm) thickness.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
3.3
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
3.3
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
2. Spiral Columns. These are columns with longitudinal bars and closely
spaced continuous spiral hooping. For spiral columns, the ratio of the
area of the vertical reinforcement to the gross column area shall not
less than 1% nor more than 8%. The minimum number of bars shall 6,
and the minimum bar size shall #5.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Reinforced Concrete
3.3
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
1. ONE-WAY SLABS
Probably the most commonly used type or reinforced concrete
construction consists of a solid slab supported by two parallel beams,
the beams framing into girders, and the girders in turn framing into
columns. The reinforcement slabs runs in one direction only, from
beam to beam, hence the slab is known as one-way slab. The number
of beams in a panel depends upon the column spacing and the live
load to be supported. The beams are spaced uniformly and generally
frame into the girders at the center, third or quarter points.
This type of framing is called the beam-and-girder floor. It is readily
constructed and the formwork is simple. The one-way slab is
economical for medium and heavy live loads for comparatively short
spans, 6 to 12 ft. For light live loads, 40 to 60 psf, the spans may be
increased, but long spans for one-way slabs results in comparatively
large dead loads.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
The main tensile reinforcement (running along the short direction) in fully
continuous slabs are alternately bent up, usually at an angle of 30 to
45 degrees, at the fifth points of the span and extend over the supports
to the quarter points of the adjoining span. The remaining bars are
straight, placed in the bottom of the slab. For single span slabs the
bars are bent up at the quarter points.
Another method of placing the reinforcement is to place straight bars at the
bottom of the slab and the other straight bars at the top of the slab over
the supports. If the bent bars are used, bent bars from the adjoining
bars are extended over the supports, thus providing the same amount
of reinforcement over the supports as at mid-span.
In addition to the tensile reinforcement, temperature bars are also provided
running along the long direction. These serve to provide against the
effect of shrinkage and changes in temperature and also to distribute
possible load concentrations over larger areas. The size and spacing
of temperature bars depends upon the slab thickness.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Clay tile fillers are generally 12 x 12 in plan with depths of 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,
and 15 in. The usual practice is to place the tiles 16 o.c., thus
making the web 4 wide. The layer of concrete placed on top of the
tile is generally 2 or 2-1/2 in. thick. Reinforcement for this type of
construction may consist of two bars placed in the lower part of the
web, one bent and one straight, or of straight bars placed in the top
and bottom parts of the web.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Metal tile fillers are frequently used for ribbed floors. This is commonly
known as tin-pan construction. The metal forms are usually 36 long,
with 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 in. depths. They are placed on centers in
such a manner as to make the web 4 to 7 in. wide at the lowest point.
Form widths are generally 20 or 30 in.; a common condition is a form
20 in. wide, placed 25 in. on centers, to make a web 5 wide at the
bottom.
The metal forms may be removed or left in place after supporting
formwork has been taken down. To provide a greater web area near
the supports, where the shearing stresses may exceed the allowable,
special metal cores with the sides tapered in plan are used. The
degree of tapering generally is such that the web is increased 4 in
width. As in the case of clay-tile fillers, a 2, 2-1/2, or 3 in. slab is
placed over the metal tile forms, the slab and web forming a Tsection.
Gypsum-tile fillers have the advantage of providing a relatively lightweight
ribbed with a flush ceiling. Although they are made in various sizes, a
common width is 19, placed 24 o.c., with webs 5 wide. When block
12 wide are used, they are placed 16 o.c., thus forming 4 wide
webs.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
3. TWO-WAY SLABS
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
When a floor panel is square or nearly so, having beams or walls on four
sides, it is generally economical to use two sets of reinforcing bars
placed at right angles to each other. These bars in two directions
transfer the loads to the four supporting beams or walls. Slabs thus
reinforced are known as two way slabs or slabs supported on four
sides.
For square panels, with supports of equal rigidity, the live and dead loads
are distributed equally in both directions and the reinforcements are
the same each way. When the panel is oblong or rectangular, the
greater part of the load is transmitted by the transverse or short
reinforcement. If the length of the slab exceeds 1.5 times its width,
the entire load is usually assumed to be carried by the short
reinforcement, and the long reinforcement used for shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement only; hence the slab would become a
one-way slab.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Flat-slab floors are economical in use of material and provide a rigid type of
construction. These floors are particularly suitable for industrial buildings
having large live loads and for buildings in which the columns capitals are
not objectionable. Among the advantages claimed for flat-slab floor are
the simplified formwork, better lighting due to the absence of beams and
girders, a saving in height for given clear story heights, a uniform surface
for suspending sprinkler systems, piping and shafting, and, because of
the absence of sharp corners, better resistance to fire.
The ratio of length to width of flat-slab panels should not exceed 1.33.
Thickness of slab without drop panels or through drop panel, if any, shall
not be less than L/36; thickness of slab with drop panels at points beyond
the drop panel should not be less than L/40. The side of diameter of the
drop panel shall be at least 0.33 times the span in the parallel direction.
The diameter of the column capital measured at the bottom of the slab or
drop panel (in feet) is generally taken between 0.20 and 0.25 L.
There are several methods of reinforcing flat-slabs and flat plates:
1. Two-way system. This system is the most commonly used and consists of two
sets of bars extending directly from column to column in both directions. Slabs are
square or rectangular.
2. Three-way system. The reinforcement extends from column to column, the
columns being placed at the corners of equilateral triangles; hence slabs are
triangular in shape.
3. Four-way system. The reinforcement extends both directly and diagonally between
columns in both directions. The slabs are square or rectangular.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
At the supports, however, the upper surface of the beam becomes concave
downward; that is there is a reversal of stresses. The upper portion of the
beam is now in tension ( or the bending moment is said to change from
positive to negative). The section of a beam at which the bending moment
changes from positive to negative is called the point of inflection. The
exact position of inflection points depends upon the position and
magnitudes of the loads as well as the end conditions of the beams. For
continuous beams having equal spans and uniformly distributed loads, the
inflection point is considered to be one-fifth the clear span between faces
of support.
At this point some of the reinforcing bars are bent up at an angle of from 30 to
45 degrees and extend over the supports into the adjacent spans. The bent
up bars serve to resist the tensile stresses over the supports. Thus for
continuous beams with uniformly distributed loads the bars would be bent
up at one-fifth the clear span from the face of the supports and extend to
the quarter points of the adjacent span. Not more than half of the bears
should be bent up; the rest of the reinforcement extends straight through
the center of the supports.
Another method is to use separate straight bars in both the bottoms and tops
of the beams in place of bent bars. The slight cost in excess weight in this
arrangement over the combination of straight and bent bars is probably
balanced by the ease of preparing design and shop drawings, bill of
materials, and fabrication and placing of reinforcement. Bars not fabricated
according to drawings, or those lost and mislaid, are more easily replaced if
no bending is involved.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
10
3 - #11
3 - #9
4 - #6
12
4- #11
4 - #9
5 - #6
6 - #7
6 - #4
7 - #4
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
1. Rectangular beams
2. T beams. When a reinforced
concrete floor slab and its supporting
beam (or girder) are built at the same
time and thoroughly tied together, a
part of the slab may be considered to
act with upper part of the beam in
compression. This form of a beam is
called a T- beam.
3. Beam with Compression
Reinforcement. These are beams with
reinforcement in the compression as
well as the tension side of the beam,
hence they are also called double
reinforced beams. In this type of beam
no bent up bars are required. Beams
with compression reinforcement are
used when the cross-sectional
dimensions of the beam are limited by
architectural or structural conditions so
that there is an insufficient concrete
area for the compressive stresses.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks 3.5
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks 3.5
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
a. Stone masonry panels are natural or artificial stone slabs which are
anchored to the building structure by masonry anchors.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
2.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
d. Panel type (or sheathed type). Supports not expressed. Nonlineal pattern. Joints vertical and horizontal usually without trim.
Individual panel size: max. width, 3 10; max. height, 8 0.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural 3.6
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
In large cities it is customary to utilize the space under the sidewalks for
storage or other purposes. This necessitates a wall at the curb line to hold
back the earth and the street pressures and also the weight of the
sidewalk. These are called vault walls.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete 3.7
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete 3.7
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete 3.7
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
The reinforcing for pre-stressed concrete is usually wire, strand, bar or rope
made of heat-treated steel. Concrete must meet strengths usually greater
than AA-type concrete which has a strength of 3750 psi in 28 days.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete 3.7
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
Systems
4. Beams do not have to be cast at the side in one form, but may be cast in
small sections or blocks at the factory with reinforcing wires threaded
through them. When the wires are stressed, the small units are brought
together like one large beam.
5. It develops remarkable resistance to shear stresses.
Pre-stressed concrete is used where spans and loads cannot be adequately
designed in reinforced-concrete, and for deckings, beams, girders and other
prefabricated units where greater spans and loads with thinner, stronger,
and in some cases, lighter members are required.
The designing of pre-stressed concrete for structures is highly technical and the
architect should always work with a structural engineer, even when using
prefabricated pre-stressed concrete units.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems 3.8
Building Protection
Systems
Precast concrete slabs, beams and structural tees are one-way spanning units
that may be supported by site cast concrete, precast concrete, or masonry
bearing walls, or by steel, sitecast concrete, or precast concrete frames.
The precast units are manufactured with normal-density or structural
lightweight concrete and prestressed for greater structural efficiency, which
results in less depth, reduced weight, and longer spans.
The units are cast and steam-cured in a plant off-site, transported to the
construction site, and set in place as rigid components with cranes. The
size and proportion of the units may be limited by the means of
transportation. Fabrication in a factory environment enables the unit to
have a consistent quality of strength, durability, and finish, and eliminates
the need for on-site formwork. The modular nature3 of the standard-sized
units may not be suitable for irregular building shapes.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems 3.8
Building Protection
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Powder Post A condition of wood which has decayed to powder, or has been eaten by worms which leave holes full of powder.
Rot Decomposition in wood by fungi and other microorganisms; reduces its strength, density and hardness.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Paint remover A liquid which is applied to a dry paint or varnish to cause it to soften or lose adhesion so that it may be removed
easily.
Stripper A liquid designed to remove coatings by chemical and/or solvent action.
Descaler A liquid designed to remove scale that forms on the inside of hot water heaters, boilers, etc.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
3.9.2
WATERPROOFING
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
1. Application Locations:
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
GROUND BEAM
WATER PROOFING
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement
Construction, Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
2.
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural
Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete
Pre-Cast Concrete
Floor Systems
Building Protection
3.9
Systems
Batt Insulation A flexible blanket- type thermal insulation, commonly used as insulation between studs or joints in frame construction;
also used as an acoustical material or a component in sound-insulating construction. Usually made from rock, slag, or glass
fibers. Sometimes has a vapor barrier on one side or is entirely enclosed in paper with a vapor barrier on one side.
BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
3
END