CHAPTER1

INTRODUCTION

1Whatisbiology
2Branchesinbiology
3Briefhistoryoflife
thesignofevolution:biography,taxonomy

 Biology,istheknowledgeaboutlifeandstudyoflivingthings(organisms)
OriginatedfromGreekwords,bios=lifeandlogos=knowledge.
Biologyisthescientificextensionofthehumantendencytoconnecttoandbe
curiousaboutlife.
Helpusunderstandbettertherelationshipbetweenlivingorganismsandtheir
functionswithevt.
Theadventureofbiologytakesus:
Intoavarietyofenvironmentstoinvestigateecosystems
Tothelaboratorytoexaminehoworganismswork
Intothemicroscopicworldtoexplorecellsandthesubmicroscopicto
exploremoleculesincells
Backintimetoinvestigatethehistoryoflife.

 Insomeways,biologyisthemostdemandingofall
sciences,partlybecauselivingsystemsareso
complexandpartlybecausebiologyisan
multidisciplinarysciencethatrequiresaknowledge
ofchemistry,physics,andmathematics.
Biologyisalsothesciencemostconnectedtothe
humanitiesandsocialsciences.
Thecomplexityoflifeisinspiring,butitcanbe
overwhelming.

1.2Branchesinbiology
Zoologythestudyofanimals
Botanythestudyofplants
Microbiologythestudyofmicroorganisms
Mycologythestudyoffungi
Bacteriologythestudyofbacteria
Anatomystudythestructureofanimalsandplants
Taxonomyclassificationoforganisms

 Histology Embryology Physiology Development biology

Biochemistry Cell biology
Genetics Molecular biology
ecology -

 Histologyisthestudyofthe
microscopicanatomyofcellsandtissuesofplants
andanimals.
Embryologyaboutthedevelopmentofanembryo
fromthefertilizationoftheovumto
thefetusstage.
Physiologythescienceofthefunctionofliving
systems.
Developmentbiologythestudyoftheprocessby
whichorganismsgrowanddevelop.

 Biochemistrythestudyofchemicalprocessesin
livingorganisms,including,butnotlimitedto,living
matter.
Cellbiologystudyofcells
Geneticsthescienceofgenes,heredity,
andvariationinlivingorganisms.
Molecularbiologythebranchofbiologythatdeals
withthemolecularbasisofbiologicalactivity.
ecologyThestudyoftheinteractionofpeoplewith
theirenvironment.

1.3 Characteristics & a Brief history of

life

Life can be defined in terms of the characteristics of living

organisms

1. Living things are highly organized, from smallest part

to the largest.

Organisms are composed of cells.Unicellular organisms are

composed of a single cell.

Multicellular organisms are composed of several or great

numbers of cells

The cell theory was first described by Schleidan and

Schwann in the 1800s.

2. All living things have an ability to acquire materials

and energy

All organism use energy. Sum of chemical energy used is

called metabolism

Energy used to carry out their body functions

E.g: autotroph: use sun energy to make food (glucose). Heterotrophs:

obtain energy by ingesting food

3. All living things have an ability to regulate their

metabolic processes

Metabolic processes occur continuously. Carefully regulated in order

to maintain homeostasis.

Homeostasis = maintaining a stable internal environment to remain

alive.

Eg: temperature, water content, heartbeat etc. paramesium: using

contractile vacuole to pump out excess water to survive in fresh water
system.

4. All living things have an ability to respond to

their environment

Respond to stimuli via movement towards safety and to

ensure its survival.

Plants respond to light stimuli (the sun)

photosynthesis. Roots respond to water and minerals.

Encompasses its limited amount of movement to

respond according to its needs in the evt.

5. All living things have an ability to reproduce

Life comes from life. Reproduce to continue living. How?

Asexual reproduction does not include gamete fusion

Most plants and animals reproduce sexually. Sperm fuse

with ovum to form a fertilized egg.

6. All living things have ability to grow and develop

All organisms grow and change. Increase in size or increase in the

number of cells or both.

Cells divide to form new identical cells. Differentiation- each

specialized cells do their own specific functions. Grouped
systems (skeletal, muscle, digestive) more complex organism.

E.g: muscle cells-muscle tissues- heart muscle- circulatory

system-person

Development includes all the changes that occur during the life
of an organism

7. All living things have an ability to adapt

Adaptations may be structural, physiological, and/or behavioral

Modification organism to survive in its environment

Natural selection. Allows individuals with better adaption to

survive better and reproduce more.

Best suited individuals will pass the genes to the next generation.
Makes the species stronger.

order

Evolutionary
adaptation

Response
tothe
environment

Regulation
Energy
processing

Reproduction
Growthand
development

 Read in your textbook

1.4Thesignofevolution
Biologycanbeviewedashavingtwodimensions:a
verticaldimensioncoveringthesizescalefrom
atomstothebiosphereandahorizontaldimension
thatstretchesacrossthediversityoflife.
Thelatterincludesnotonlypresentdayorganismsbut
thosethroughoutlifeshistory.

Evolutionmakessenseofeverythingweknowabout
livingorganisms
OrganismslivingonEartharemodifieddescendents
ofcommonancestors

 Evolution is the key to understanding

biological diversity.
The evolutionary connections among all
organisms explain the unity and diversity of
life.

Evolutionisthecorethemeofbiology
ThehistoryoflifeisasagaofarestlessEarth
billionsofyearsold,inhabitedbyachangingcast
oflivingforms.
Thiscastisrevealed
throughfossilsandother
evidence.

Lifeevolves.
Eachspeciesisonetwig
onabranchingtreeoflife
extendingbackthrough
ancestralspecies.
Fig.1.13

 Speciesthatareverysimilarshareacommon
ancestorthatrepresentsarelativelyrecentbranch
pointonthetreeoflife.
Brownbearsandpolarbearssharearecentcommon
ancestor.

Bothbearsarealsorelatedthrougholdercommon
ancestorstootherorganisms.
Thepresenceofhairandmilkproducingmammary
glandsindicatesthatbearsarerelatedtoother
mammals.

Similaritiesincellularstructure,likecilia,indicate
acommonancestorforalleukaryotes.
Alllifeisconnectedthroughevolution.

 CharlesDarwinpublishedOntheOriginofSpecies
byMeansofNaturalSelectionin1859
Darwinmadetwomainpoints:
Species showed evidence of descent with
modificationfromcommonancestorsevolution.
Natural selection is the mechanism behind
descentwithmodificationadaptation
Darwinstheoryexplainedtheunityanddiversity

 Darwin observed that: theory of natural selection

1. Individual members of a species show some
variation from one another
2. Organism produce many more offsprings than
will survive to reproduce.
3. Organisms compete for necessary resources
such as food, sunlight and space
4. The survivors that reproduce pass their
adaptations survival on to their offsprings.

 Darwin inferred that:

Individuals that are best suited to their environment are more
likely to survive and reproduce
Over time, more individuals in a population will have the
advantageous traits

In other words, the natural environment selects for

beneficial traits

Population
1 Populationwith
with
varied
variedinherited
inherited
traits
Populationwith
traits
variedinherited
traits

Elimination

2 Eliminationof
of individuals
individualswith
with
certain
certaintraits

traits.

Reproduction
3 Reproductionof
of survivors.
survivors

Increasing
Increasing
4
frequencyof
frequencyof
traits that
Increasing
traitsthat
enhance
frequencyof
enhance
survival and
traitsthat
survivaland
enhance
reproductive
reproductive
survivaland
success.
success
reproductive
success

 Naturalselectionisoftenevidentinadaptationsof
organismstotheirwayoflifeandenvironment
Batwingsareanexampleofadaptation

 Unityindiversityarisesfromdescentwith
modification
Forexample,theforelimbofthebat,human,horse
andthewhaleflipperallshareacommonskeletal
architecture
Fossilsprovideadditionalevidenceofanatomical
unityfromdescentwithmodification

 Darwin proposed that natural selection

could cause an ancestral species to give rise
to two or more descendent species
For example, the finch species of the
Galpagos Islands
Evolutionary relationships are often
illustrated with tree-like diagrams that
show ancestors and their descendents

Insecteaters

Warblerfinches

Graywarblerfinch
Certhideafusca

Budeater

Seedeater

COMMON
ANCESTOR

Greenwarblerfinch
Certhideaolivacea

Sharpbeaked
groundfinch
Geospizadifficilis
Vegetarianfinch
Platyspizacrassirostris
Mangrovefinch
Cactospizaheliobates

Insecteaters

Treefinches

Woodpeckerfinch
Cactospizapallida
Mediumtreefinch
Camarhynchuspauper
Largetreefinch
Camarhynchuspsittacula
Smalltreefinch
Camarhynchusparvulus

Seedeaters

Groundfinches

Cactusflower
eaters

Largecactus
groundfinch
Geospizaconirostris
Cactusgroundfinch
Geospizascandens

Smallground
finch
Geospiza
fuliginosa

Mediumgroundfinch
Geospizafortis
Largegroundfinch
Geospizamagnirostris

Insecteaters

Warblerfinches

Greenwarblerfinch
Certhideaolivacea
Graywarblerfinch
Certhideafusca

Budeater

Seedeater

Sharpbeaked
groundfinch
Geospizadifficilis
Vegetarianfinch
Platyspizacrassirostris

Mangrovefinch
Cactospizaheliobates
Insecteaters

Treefinches

Woodpeckerfinch
Cactospizapallida
Mediumtreefinch
Camarhynchuspauper
Largetreefinch
Camarhynchuspsittacula
Smalltreefinch
Camarhynchusparvulus

Seedeaters

Groundfinches

Cactusflower
eaters

Largecactus
groundfinch
Geospizaconirostris
Cactusgroundfinch
Geospizascandens
Smallgroundfinch
Geospizafuliginosa
Mediumgroundfinch
Geospizafortis
Largegroundfinch
Geospizamagnirostris

 Populationevolveasaresultofselectivepressures
fromchangesintheenvironment
Descentwithmodificationaccountsforboththe
unityanddiversityoflife.
Inmanycases,featuressharedbytwospeciesaredueto
theirdescentfromacommonancestor.
Differencesareduetomodificationsbynatural
selectionmodifyingtheancestralequipmentindifferent
environments.

Evolutionisthecorethemeofbiologyaunifying
threadthattiesbiologytogether.

1.5Diversityandunityarethedualfacesof
lifeonEarth
Diversityisahallmarkoflife.
Atpresent,biologistshaveidentifiedandnamedabout1.8
millionspecies.
Thisincludesover280,000plants,almost50,000
vertebrates,andover750,000insects.
Thousandsofnewlyidentifiedspeciesareaddedeach
year.

Estimatesofthetotaldiversityofliferangefrom
about10milliontoover100millionspecies.

 Biologicaldiversityissomethingtorelishand
preserve,butitcanalsobeabitoverwhelming.

Fig.1.9

 Inthefaceofthis
complexity,humansare
inclinedtocategorize
diverseitemsintoasmaller
numberofgroups.
Taxonomyisthebranchof
biologythatnamesand
classifiesspeciesintoa
hierarchicalorder.
Domains,followedby
kingdoms,arethebroadest
unitsofclassification

Fig.1.10

Fig.114

Species Genus Family Order

Class

Phylum Kingdom Domain

Ursusamericanus
(Americanblackbear)
Ursus
Ursidae
Carnivora
Mammalia
Chordata

Animalia

Eukarya

 Biologistuseabinomialsystemfornamingand
classifyingorganisms
Scientificnamesincludeagenusnameanda
speciesname
CarolusLinnaeusdevelopedthesystemof
classificationusedtoday
Binomialnomenclaturedescribesthegenusand
speciesoftheorganism

 The three-domain system is currently used, and

replaces the old five-kingdom system
Domain Bacteria and domain Archaea comprise the
prokaryotes
Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotic organisms

 The domain Eukarya includes three

multicellular kingdoms:
Plantae
Fungi
Animalia
Other eukaryotic organisms were formerly
grouped into a kingdom called Protista,
though these are now often grouped into
many separate kingdoms

(a)DOMAINBACTERIA

(b)DOMAINARCHAEA

(c)DOMAINEUKARYA

Protists

Kingdom
Plantae

KingdomFungi
KingdomAnimalia

 BothEubacteriaandArchaeahaveprokaryotes.
Archaeamaybemorecloselyrelatedtoeukaryotes
thantheyaretobacteria.
TheEukarya
includesat
leastfour
kingdoms:
Protista,
Plantae,
Fungi,and
Animalia.
Fig.1.11

 Sixkingdomsystem
KingdomEubacteriaconsistsofbacteria
KingdomArchaeaconsistsofauniquegroupof
prokaryoticorganisms,whichbiologistsrecentlyhave
splitofffromthebacterialkingdom(Eubacteria)
KingdomProtistaconsistsofprotozoansandalgae
KingdomFungiconsistsofthemushrooms,molds,and
yeasts
KingdomPlantaeconsistsofplants
KingdomAnimaliaconsistsoftheanimals

 MulticellularorganismsincludedPlantae,Fungi,
andAnimalia.
Protistaisprimarilyunicellularbutincludesthe
multicellularalgaeinmanyclassificationschemes.
Mostplantsproducetheirownsugarsandfoodby
photosynthesis.
Mostfungiaredecomposersthatbreakdowndead
organismsandorganicwastes.
Animalsobtainfoodbyingestingotherorganisms.

 Underlyingthediversity
oflifeisastrikingunity,
especiallyatthelower
levelsoforganization.
Theuniversalgenetic
languageofDNAunites
prokaryotes,like
bacteria,with
eukaryotes,likehumans.
Amongeukaryotes,
unityisevidentinmany
detailsofcellstructure.
Fig.1.12

 Abovethecellularlevel,organismsarevariously
adaptedtotheirwaysoflife.
Thiscreateschallengesintheongoingtaskof
describingandclassifyingbiologicaldiversity.
Evolutionaccountsforthiscombinationofunity
anddiversityoflife.