Biology GCSE

Cell Activity

Cell Structure

Animal Cells
a nucleus, which controls the activities of the cell
cytoplasm, in which most of the chemical
reactions take place
a cell membrane, which controls the passage of
substances into and out of the cell
mitochondria, which is where most energy is
released in respiration
ribosomes, which is where protein synthesis
occurs.
Most human cells are like most other animal cells.

Plant Cells
Same as animals +
chloroplasts, which absorb light
energy to make food
a permanent vacuole filled with cell
sap.
Plant and algal cells also have a cell
wall made of cellulose, which
strengthens the cell.
Plant and algal cells also have a cell

Bacterial Cell

A bacterial cell consists of cytoplasm

Cell membrane surrounded
Cell wall
the genes are not in a distinct
nucleus
some of the genes are located in
circular structures called plasmids.

Yeast Cell
Yeast is a single-celled organism.
Yeast cells have a :
nucleus,
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
surrounded by a cell wall.

Specialist Cells
Cells may be specialised to carry out
a particular function.
Candidates should be able, when
provided with appropriate
information, to relate the structure of
different types of cell to their
function in a tissue, an organ, or the
whole organism.

The movement of substances into

and out of cells

Diffusion
Diffusion is the spreading of the
particles of any substance in
solution, or particles of a gas,
resulting in a net movement from a
region where they are of a higher
concentration to a region with a
lower concentration. The greater the
difference in concentration, the
faster the rate of diffusion.

Diffusion
Spreading of liquid or gas
From high concentration area to low
concentration area
Greater Concentration Difference >>
rate of diffusion

Diffusion

Diffusion
Dissolved substances can move into
and out of cells by diffusion.
Oxygen required for respiration
passes through cell membranes by
diffusion.

Osmosis 1
Osmosis is the diffusion of water
from a dilute to a more concentrated
solution through a partially
permeable membrane that allows the
passage of water molecules.

Osmosis

Osmosis 2
Differences in the concentrations of
the solutions inside and outside a cell
cause water to move into or out of
the cell by osmosis.

Osmosis 3
Candidates should be familiar with
experiments related to diffusion and
osmosis as well as the terms
isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic,
turgor and plasmolysis.

Active Transportation 1
Substances are sometimes absorbed against
a concentration gradient.
i.e. from low concentration to high
concentration
This requires the use of energy from
respiration.
The process is called active transport.

Active Transportation 2
Active transport enables plants to
absorb ions from very dilute
solutions, eg by root hair cells.
Similarly, sugar may be absorbed
from low concentrations in the
intestine and from low
concentrations in the kidney tubules.

Single Celled Organisms

A single-celled organism has a relatively
large surface area to volume ratio.
All the necessary exchanges occur via
its surface membrane.
The size and complexity of an organism
increase the difficulty of exchanging
materials.

Multi-Celled Organisms
In multicellular organisms many organ
systems are specialised for exchanging
materials.
The effectiveness of an exchange surface
is increased by:
having a large surface area that is thin,
to provide a short diffusion path (in animals)
having an efficient blood supply
(in animals, for gaseous exchange)
being ventilated.

Multi-Celled Organisms
Candidates should be able to explain
how the small intestine and lungs in
mammals, and the roots and leaves
in plants, are adapted for exchanging
materials.

Small intestine exchanging

materials

Lungs exchanging
materials

Roots exchanging
materials

Leaves exchanging
materials

Maximise Effectiveness
Gas and solute exchange surfaces in
humans and other organisms are
adapted to maximise effectiveness.
Candidates should be able, when
provided with appropriate
information, to explain how gas and
solute exchange surfaces are
adapted to maximise effectiveness.

Chromosomes 1
The nucleus of a cell contains
chromosomes.
Chromosomes carry genes that control
the characteristics of the body eg blue
eyes
Each chromosome carries a large
number of genes.

Chromosomes 2
Many genes have different forms
called alleles, which may produce
different characteristics.
In body cells the chromosomes are
normally found in pairs.

Chromosomes 3
Body cells divide by mitosis to
produce additional cells during
growth or to produce replacement
cells.
When a body cell divides by mitosis:
copies of the genetic material are made
the cell then divides once to form two
genetically identical body cells.

Mitosis

Meiosis
Cells in reproductive organs divide to form
gametes.
A cell divides to form gametes by meiosis.
When a cell divides to form gametes:
copies of the genetic information are made
the cell then divides twice to form four
gametes, each with a single set of
chromosomes.

Fertilisation
Gametes join at fertilisation to form a
single body cell with new pairs of
chromosomes.
This cell repeatedly divides by
mitosis to form many cells.
As an organism develops, these cells
differentiate to form different kinds of
cells.

Cell Division
Most types of animal cell
differentiate at an early stage
whereas many plant cells retain the
ability to differentiate throughout life.
In mature animals, cell division is
mainly restricted to repair and
replacement.

Stem Cells
Cells from human embryos and adult
bone marrow, called stem cells, can
be made to differentiate into many
different types of human cell, eg
nerve cells.

Therapeutic Cloning
In therapeutic cloning an embryo is
produced with the same genes as the
patient. Stem cells from the embryo
will not be rejected by the patients
body so they may be used for
medical treatment.

Stem Cells
Treatment with stem cells may be able to
help conditions such as paralysis.
Knowledge and understanding of stem cell
techniques is not required.
Candidates should be able, when provided
with appropriate information, to make
informed judgements about the social and
ethical issues concerning the use of stem
cells from embryos in medical research and
treatments.

Cancer / Tumours
Tumours result from the abnormal, uncontrolled
growth of cells. Benign tumours do not invade
other tissues.
Cells from malignant tumours invade healthy
tissue. Some malignant cells may enter the
bloodstream and circulate to other parts of the
body, forming secondary tumours.
Tumours can be caused by chemical
carcinogens, eg those found in tobacco smoke
and in asbestos, and by ionising radiation, eg
UV and X-rays.