CE 231

Engineering Geology & Geomorphology

EARTHQUAKE
Sheikh Sharif Ahmed

Department of Civil Engineering

Chittagong University of Engineering &
Technology

INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE
What is Earthquake
An earthquake is an unpredictable event
in which masses of rock shift below Earth's
surface, releasing enormous amounts of
energy and sending out shock waves that
sometimes cause the ground to shake
dramatically.

Energy released radiates in all

directions from its source, the focus.
Energy propagates in the form of
seismic waves.
Sensitive instruments around the

INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE
The Release of Energy

INTRODUCTION TO EARTHQUAKE
The Focus & the Epicenter
The point within
Earth
where
faulting begins is
the
focus,
or
hypocenter.
The point directly
above the focus
on the surface is
the epicenter.

WHERE DO EARTHQUAKES OCCUR

Plate Boundaries

WHERE DO EARTHQUAKES OCCUR

Faults

WHERE DO EARTHQUAKES OCCUR

Faults

CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
Plate Tectonics Theory

Earth is divided into sections called

Tectonic plates that float on the fluidlike interior of the Earth.

Earthquakes are usually caused

sudden movement of earth plates.

by

Rupture of rocks along a fault

Faults are localized areas of weakness

in the surface of the Earth, sometimes
the plate boundary itself.

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

Crust
Lithosph
ere
Asthenosp
here
Mesospher
e
Liquid Outer
Core
Solid Inner
Core

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

The Shallowest Layer: the Crust

The crust is the most heterogeneous

layer in the Earth.
The crust is on average 33 km thick for
continents and 10 km thick beneath
oceans; however it varies from just a
few km to over 70 km globally.
The boundary between the crust and
the mantle is mostly chemical.
The crust and mantle have different
compositions.
This boundary is referred to as the
Mohorovii discontinuity or Moho.

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

The Shallowest Layer: the Crust
Two types of crust exist.
Continental crust

Granitic
Lighter (less dense)
Floats 'higher'
Thicker

Oceanic crust

Basaltic
Heavier (more dense)
Sinks 'deeper'
Thinner

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

The Shallowest Layer: the Crust

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

Middle Earth: the Mantle

Earths mantle exists from the bottom

of the crust to a depth of 2891 km
(radius of 3480 km) Gutenberg
discontinuity.

It is further subdivided into:

The uppermost mantle (crust to 400 km

depth)
The transition zone (400 700 km depth)
The mid-mantle (700 to ~2650 km
depth)
The lowermost mantle (~2650 2891 km
depth)

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

Earths Core

Owing to the great pressure inside the

Earth, the Earths core is actually
freezing as the Earth gradually cools.
The boundary between the liquid outer
core and the solid inner core occurs at a
radius of about 1220 km Lehman
discontinuity, after Inge Lehman from
Denmark.
The boundary between the mantle and
outer core is sharp.
The change in density across the core-

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

Earths Core

The viscosity of the outer core is similar

to that of water, it flows kilometers per
year and creates the Earths magnetic
field.
The
outer
core
is
the
most
homogeneous part of the Earth
The outer core is mostly an alloy of iron
and nickel in liquid form.
As the core freezes latent heat is
released; this heat causes the outer
core to convect and so generates a

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

Mechanical Layers
1. Lithosphere
2. Asthenosphere
3. Mesosphere

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

Mechanical Layers

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

Mechanical Layers

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

Mechanical Layers
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the uppermost 50100 km of the Earth.

There is not a strict boundary between

the lithosphere and the asthenosphere
as there is between the crust and
mantle.

It consists of both crust and upper parts

of mantle.

It behaves rigidly, like a solid, over very

long time periods.

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

Mechanical Layers
Asthenosphere
The
asthenosphere exists
depths of 100-200 km.

between

It is the weakest part of the mantle.

It is a solid over short time scales, but

behaves like a fluid over millions of
years.

The asthenosphere decouples the

lithosphere (tectonic plates) from the
rest of the mantle.

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

Mechanical Layers
Asthenosphere

CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

Tectonic Forces

The interior of the Earth is dynamic it

cools down and thus provides energy
for convective currents in the outer core
and in the asthenosphere.

Additional
energy
radioactive decay...

comes

from

PLATE TECTONICS

Plate Tectonics theory is very young

(1960-ies)

It provides answers to the most

fundamental questions in seismology:
Why earthquakes occur?
Why are earthquake epicenters not
uniformly distributed around the globe?
At what depths are their focal?

PLATE TECTONICS
Plates

The earths surface is broken into ~ 20

rigid plates.

All plates contain oceanic crust; some

also have continental.

All plates move on convecting mantle

at the rate fingernails grow.

Plates interact at their edges causing

volcanoes and earthquakes.

PLATE TECTONICS
Plates
The Plates of Plate Tectonics are
fragments of lithosphere.
Lithosphere, the outermost layer of
Earth, consists of
The crust and
The uppermost mantle

Lithosphere is strong and rigid.

Lithosphere
moves
over
asthenosphere which is
Weaker
Softer

the

PLATE TECTONICS
Plate tectonics yields a unified explanation
of:

Earths major surface processes

The distribution of earthquakes

The distribution of volcanoes

The origin of continents and ocean

basins

The past distributions of plants and

animals

The
mechanism
(mountain building)

of

orogenesis

PLATE TECTONICS
Plate Motion

All plates move relative to one other.

Motion is very slow (on a human time

scale)* - 1 to 15 cm/yr.

Motion is continuous.

Motion averages 5 cm (2 inches) per

year. as fast as your fingernails grow.
*On a geologic time scale plate motion is
extremely rapid

PLATE TECTONICS
Earths Major Plates
Seven major lithospheric plates

Pacific (largest)

Eurasian

African

North American

Antarctic

South American

Australian

PLATE TECTONICS
Earths Minor Plates
Many minor plates and micro plates
Juan de Fuca
Philippine
Arabian
Caribbean
Cocos
Nazca
Scotia
Some plates have been destroyed
(Farallon plate)

PLATE TECTONICS

Earths Plates

PLATE TECTONICS
Plate Boundaries
Plates are rigid.
When they interact, plate interiors
remain intact.
Plate boundaries, however, are modified
by deformation

Faulting
Folding
Thickening / Thinning
Melting

Plate boundaries are the locations of

large-scale geologic phenomenon Volcanoes
Earthquakes
Mountain chains

PLATE TECTONICS

Plate Boundaries

PLATE TECTONICS
Identifying Plate Boundaries

Plate boundaries are marked

earthquake foci (centers).

Plate
interiors
earthquake free.

are

by

comparatively

PLATE TECTONICS

Plate Boundaries

PLATE TECTONICS

Plate Boundaries

PLATE TECTONICS

Plate Boundaries