Endocrine System

Endocrine system
- With the nervous system, it coordinates
and directs the activity of the body
cells.
Fact: nervous system is built for speed,
meaning it uses nerve impulses to prod
the muscles and glands into immediate
action so that rapid adjustments can be
made in response to changes occurring
both side and outside the body.
- They consist of a chemical messenger
called hormones, which is released in
the blood stream to be transported

Major processes that is in control:

Reproduction
Growth and development
Mobilizing body defenses against
stressors
Maintaining electrolyte, water, and
nutrient balance of the blood
Regulating cellular metabolism and
energy metabolism
The scientific study of hormones and
endocrine organs is called
endocrinology

CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES
Hormones
- Chemical substances that are secreted by
endocrine cells into the extracellular fluids and
regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in
the body.
- Came from a Greek word meaning to arouse
- Can be classified chemically as:
- Amino acid-based molecules (proteins, peptides,
and amines)
- Steroids (made from cholesterol) like sex hormones
made by the gonads (or the ovaries and testes) and
hormones produced by the adrenal cortex
- Prostaglandins (made from highly active lipids
released from nearly all cell membrane)

HORMONE ACTION
Most hormones circulates in the blood, but a
hormone usually affects only certain tissue
cells or organs, which is referred to as
target cells or target organs.
Specific receptors is needed in the cell
plasma membrane for the target cell to
respond to a hormone.
Hormones arouse or bring about their
effects by altering cellular activity by
increasing, decreasing the rate of a normal
or usual metabolic process rather than by
stimulating performance of a new one.

Changes that follows with hormone

binding depending on the specific
hormone and the target cell type:
1. Changes in plasma membrane
permeability or electrical state
2. Synthesis of protein or certain regulatory
molecules (such as enzymes) in the cell
3. Activation or inactivation of enzyme
4. Stimulation of mitosis
5. Promotion of secretory activity

Two mechanisms by which hormones

trigger changes in the cell:
Direct gene activation
used by the steroid hormones because they are
lipid-soluble molecules which can:
Diffuse through the plasma membrane of their target
cells
Steroid hormones enters the nucleus and binds to a
specific hormone receptor there.
Hormone receptor complex binds to specific sites on
the cells DNA, which activates certain genes to
transcribe messenger RNA (mRNA).
mRNA is translated in the cytoplasm , resulting in the
synthesis of new proteins.

- Second-Messenger System
- For Amino-acid based molecules because they
are water soluble, which is unable to enter the
target cells. Instead, they bind to hormone
receptors situated on the target cells plasma
membrane.
- The hormone binds to the membrane receptor
- Activated receptor sets off a series of reactions (aka
Cascade) that activates a hormone.
- The enzyme catalyzes reactions that produce secondmessenger molecules (cyclic AMP/cAMP/cyclic
adenine monophospate) that oversees additional
intracellular changes that promote the typical
response of the target cell to the hormone.
Note: The same hormone may have a variety of
possible second messenger (cyclic guanosine
monophosphate or cGMP and calcium ions).

MECHANISM OF ACTION: DIRECT

GENE ACTIVATION

MECHANISM OF ACTION:
SECOND-MESSENGER
SYSTEM

CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE

Negative feedback mechanism
are the chief means of
regulating blood levels of nearly
all hormones.
3 Stimuli that activates the
endocrine organ:
Hormonal Stimuli
- The most common stimuli; endocrine
organs are prodded into action by
other hormones.
- When hormones produced by the final
target glands increase in the blood,
they feedback to inhibit the release
of anterior pituitary hormones and
thus their own release.
- Hormone release is rhythmic with
hormone blood level rising and falling
again and again.

- Humoral stimuli
- Changing blood levels of certain
ions and nutrients may also
stimulate hormone release.
- Term humoral refers to the
ancient use of the word
bumor to indicate the various
body fluids

- Neural Stimuli
- Nerve fibers
stimulate
hormone
release
whereby the
target cells are
said to respond.

ENDOCRINE VS EXOCRINE
ENDOCRINE GLAND

EXOCRINE GLAND

Ductless glands that produces

hormones that they release into the
blood or lymph

Releases their products at the

bodys surface or into the body
cavities through ducts.

The similarities is that they were formed from the

epithelial tissues

MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS

- Hypothalamus, which is also
part of the nervous system, is
also recognized as a major
endocrine organ because it
produces several hormones. It
also creates oxytoxin and
antidiuretic hormone, which are
transported along the axons of
the hypothalamic
neurosecretory cells to the
posterior pituitary for storage.
- Some organs have purely
endocrine functions (anterior
pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, and
parathyroids) while others have
both endocrine and exocrine
function (pancreas and gonads).

PITUITARY GLAND AND

HYPOTHALAMUS
Pituitary gland
is the size of a pea
Hangs by a stalk from the
inferior surface of the
hypothalamus of the
brain, where it is snugly
surrounded by the sella
tursica (Turks saddle).
Master endocrine glands
Has 2 functional lobe:
Anterior pituitary
(glandular tissue) and the
posterior pituitary
(nervous tissue).

Anterior pituitary gland

- It controls the other activities of many
other endocrine gland. These are proteins
which acts through second messenger
system and are regulated by the hormonal
stimuli.
The ff. are the anterior pituitary hormones:
Exert the major
Growth hormone
effects on
nonendocrine target
Prolactin
Tropic (turn on)
Thyrotropic hormone
hormones!
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Meaning they
stimulate their
Follicle stimulating hormone
target organ
luteinizing hormone

Growth Hormone
- A general metabolic hormone which
effects is directed to the growth of skeletal
muscles and long bones of the body
- Determines final body size
Homeostasic imbalance:
-Hyposecretion of GH during childhood leads
to pituitary dwarfism
-Hypersecretion of GH during childhood
leads to Gigantism
-If hypersecretion occurs after long-bone
growth has ended, acromegaly is the
result.

Prolactin
- Protein hormone structure whose target in humans is the breast.
- Stimulates and maintains milk production by the mothers breast after
childbirth.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- Regulates the endocrine activity of the cortex portion of the adrenal
gland
Thyrotropic hormone (TH)/Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Influences the growth and activity of the thyroid gland.
Gonadotropic hormones
- Regulates the hormonal activity of the gonads
follicle stimulating hormones (FSH)
- In women: stimulates the follicle development in the ovaries
- In men: stimulates sperm development
Luteinizing hormone
- In women: triggers ovulation of the egg and ruptures the follicle to produce
progesterone and estrogen
- In men: stimulates testosterone production

Posterior Pituitary gland

- not an endocrine gland in strict sense because it does not make the
hormones it releases. Instead, it simply acts as storage area for
hormones made by hypothalamus.
Hormones:
- Oxytoxin
Released during childbirth
Stimulates powerful contractions of the uterine muscle during labor,
during sex, and during breastfeeding.
Causes milk ejection (aka the let-down reflex)
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Diuresis is urine production

Antidiuretic hormone is a chemical that inhibits or prevent urine production.

Kidneys reabsorb more water as a result urine volume decreases while blood
volume increases.

Also referred as VASOPRESSIN in which it increases blood pressure by the

constriction of arterioles.

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE

Hyposecretion- diabetes insipidus

THYROID GLAND

Is a butterfly-shaped gland
Located at the base of the throat, inferior to the
Adams apple

Consists of two lobes joined by a central mass called

isthmus

Produces two hormones thyroid hormone (follicular

cells) and calcitonin (parafollicular cells or C cells)

Follicle structural unit of the thyroid gland, which

store a sticky colloidal material

Thyroid hormone
- bodyd major metabolic hormone which has two
active iodine-containing hormone:
Thyroxine or T4
Major hormone secreted by the thyroid follicle
Formed at the target tissue by converting to T3
Triiodothyronine or T3

Is formed at the target tissues particularly the liver and the

kidneys by conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine
(deiodination of T4).

HEMOSTATIC IMBALANCE

Goiter is an enlargement of the thyroid gland

Cretinism- hyposecretion of thyroxine which occurs in early
childhood and results in dwarfism

Myxedema- hypothyroidism occurring in adults

Graves disease associated with exophthalmos
Calcitonin
- Decreases blood calcium levels by
causing them to be deposited in the
bones (hypocalcemic agent)
- Releases in response to increasing
levels of blood calcium

Adrenal Gland
Has a pyramid like shape located above the
kidney which has a glandular (cortex) and
neural (medulla) part.
Adrenal cortex (yellow in color) is the outer
region of adenal gland secreting the steroid
hormones.
Mineralocorticoids Maintenance of mineral contents
of the blood (Sodium and Potassium concentration)
Aldosterone

Glucocorticoids - Promote normal cell metabolism

and help the body to resist long term stressors.
Operates primarily during resistance stage of stress
response hyperglycemic hormones
Cortisol
Cortisone

Sex hormones
Androgen (Male sex hormone)
Estrogen (Female sex hormone)

Hemostatic imbalance
Addisons disease
peculiar bronze
pigmentation
hypoglycemia due to
electrolyte imbalance
(decreases)
Hyperaldosteronism
electrolyte imbalance
(increases)
Cushing syndrome Moon
face, buffallo hump,

B. Adrenal Medulla (dark mahogany) is the inner

region of the adrenal gland which is composed of
chromaffin cells that secretes catecholamines. It is
also often thought as a Misplaced sympathetic
system ganglion

CATECHOLAMINES increase blood pressure, heart

rate, and blood glucose level and dilate small passage
ways of the lungs. It helps the body to cope with a brief
or short-term stressful situation. Operate in the alarm
stage of stress response

Pancreas

Pancreas is spongy, about six to ten inches long, and is shaped

like a flat pear or a fish extended horizontally across the
abdomen. The pancreas is a mixed gland. The islet cells of the
pancreas produce hormones

o Insulin allows glucose to cross plasma membranes into cells from

beta cells.

o Glucagon allows glucose to enter the blood from alpha cells

o These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood sugar
homeostasis

Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas that occurs when

Pineal
Pineal gland

Found in the 3rd ventricle of the brain

Pine cone shaped, located in the center of the brain
near close to the pituitary gland

Secretions are stimulated by nerve stimuli

Secretes melatonin

Helps establish the bodys wake and sleep cycles

Maintain circadian rhythm and regulate reproductive

Thymus
Thymus gland

Located posterior to the sternum in upper thorax

Largest in infants and childrens
Produces thymosin

Matures some types of white blood cells

Important in developing the immune system
Increases immune responses

To promote the development of specific cells of the

immune system called T lymphocytes or T-cells. These are
white blood cells that protect against foreign organisms
(bacteria and viruses) that have managed to infect body
cells

Gonads

Gonads

Ovaries
female gonad and are paired, almond size organs located in the
pelvic cavity

female sec cells-ova

produce the following hormone
Estrogen

responsible for the secondary sex characteristics of female at puberty

acts with progesterone to activate menstrual cycle
prepare the mammary gland to produce milk (lactation)

Progesterone

helps to prepare the breast tissue for lactation

acts with estrogen to activate menstrual cycle

 Testes
Paired, male gonad suspended in a pouch like sac called the
scrotum

male sex cells- sperm

male sex hormone(androgens)- testosterone

production of sperm
regulate by anterior pituitary gonadotropin
Stimulated by Luteinizing hormone and Follicle stimulating
hormone

synthesized by Leydig cells