Casting and Forging

of
9 Cr Mo Steels

Overview on 9Cr Mo
Steels
P11 and P22

These steels are plain chromiummolybdenum creep-resisting steels

with no additional strong carbide formers.
These steels are the simplest of the true creep-resisting steels in this
group.
They rely on matrix strengthening from the chromium and
molybdenum
The above elements form carbides at grain boundary and
dislocation pinning takes place.
These steels were developed in the early part of the 20th century
They are workhorse steels used in modern fossil-fuelled power
generation plant for many decades until the development and
introduction of P91 steels during the late 1970s

P11 /P12
Performance

Very long-term service in the creep range up

to about 560 C
Their creep strength is quite modest when
compared with modern advanced steels
Applications
Areas of application are steam-generating plant
including piping,turbine casings, steam chests, valve
bodies and boiler superheaters.

P5 and P9
These

steels are plain chromiummolybdenum

creep-resisting steels with no additional strong
carbide formers but with significantly more
chromium than P11 and P22.
These steels are usually supplied in the normalised
and tempered condition
The resultant microstructure is tempered medium
carbon bainite and martensitebainite with no
retained ferrite.

P5/P9
Increased

chromium content provides additional corrosion

resistance and protection against high-temperature hydrogen
attack and blistering.
Widely used in oil refineries and similar plants.
9%Cr steel formed the basis for the more advanced creepresisting steel P91
Performance

Designed for long-term service in the creep range at 600 C in

superheated steam, hot hydrogen gas and high-sulphur crude
oils.

Applications

The main areas of application are in oil refineries.

Heat exchangers, pipework and vessels made from Grade 5 steel
are resist to high-sulphur crude oils and hot hydrogen.

P91
P91

is essentially a 0.1% carbon, 9%

chromium, 1% molybdenum steel,
modified with controlled additions of
vanadium, niobium and nitrogen to give
long-term, high-temperature creep strength.

The

microstructure is
medium carbon
martensite with little or no retained ferrite.
This is developed combining the advantages
of the existing
9%Cr and 12%Cr steels
with improved weldability.

P91
Performance

The advantages of P91 steels over established steels

such as P22-less wall thicknesses required for a set of
typical operating conditions and equivalent service
Applications

The first set of 9%Cr1%Mo (modified) tubes were

installed in superheater sections by replacing type 321
SS
This steel was recognised for tubing by the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and for
piping by the ASTM and the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

Modified
9%
chromium,
1%
molybdenum
creep-resisting steel with tungsten
Also known generically as Grade
92/NF616 and E911
These

are essentially 0.1% carbon, 9%

chromium, molybdenum steels, modified
with controlled additions of tungsten,
vanadium, niobium and nitrogen to give
exceptional long-term, high-temperature
creep strength.

Modified 9Cr Mo
The microstructure is tempered martensite with little
or no retained ferrite.
Background

These steels are developments of P91 with additions of

tungsten to provide very stable carbides and further
improve creep strength.
P92 was originally developed in Japan in the 1990s as
NF616 and was incorporated into the ASTM and ASME
code as Grade 92. In this steel the molybdenum content is
reduced to 0.5% with an addition of about 1.7% tungsten.

Performance

The steels are designed to operate at temperatures up to at

least 600 C and have creep rupture strengths are up to
30% greater than P91.

Modified 9 CrMo steels

Applications

The first commercial use of these steels took place in

Europe only around the year 2000 and the range of
applications is still being developed and explored.
The main area of use is in the construction of the most
modern high-temperature, high-efficiency fossilfuelled power stations. Probable components are
headers, main steam piping, boiler tubes, turbine
casings, steam chests and valves.
There may also be future applications in oil refining,
petrochemical, coal liquefaction and gasification
plants where significant reductions in wall thickness
of high-temperature, high-pressure vessels may be
possible.

Properties of P91

Greater resistance to thermal fatigue and

Enhanced creep strength

Resistant to thermal fatigue

Good Corrosion Resistance

High Hardness

lower thermal expansion coefficient and higher

thermal conductivity

Comparison of P91 Steel and other CSEFs

Issues in 9Cr-Mo steel

castings
Quality

issues in Moulding
Quality issues in Melting
Quality issues in Refining
Quality issues in HT
Quality issues in Weld repair of casting

Definition
Process in which molten metal flows by
gravity or other force into a mold where it
solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity
Steps

in casting seem simple:

1.Melt the metal

2.Pour it into a mold
3.Let it freeze

Capabilities and Advantages of

Casting
Can

create complex part geometries

Can create both external and internal
shapes
Some casting processes are net shape;
others are near net shape
Can produce very large parts
Some casting methods are suited to mass
production

Disadvantages of Casting
Different

disadvantages for different

casting processes:
Limitations on mechanical properties
Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish
for some processes; e.g., sand casting
Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten
metals
Environmental problems

Parts Made by Casting

Big

parts: engine blocks and heads for

automotive vehicles, machine frames,
railway wheels, pipes, church bells, big
statues, and pump housings,valves
Small parts: dental crowns, jewelry, small
statues, and frying pans
All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous
and nonferrous

Overview of Casting
Technology
Casting

is usually performed in a foundry

Foundry = factory equipped for making
molds, melting and handling molten
metal, performing the casting process, and
cleaning the finished casting
Workers who perform casting are called
foundrymen

The Mold in Casting

Contains

cavity
whose
determines part shape

geometry

Actual size and shape of cavity must be

slightly oversized to allow for shrinkage of
metal during solidification and cooling
Molds are made of a variety of materials,
including sand, plaster, ceramic, and metal

Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in

the shape of the desired part; and (b) closed mold, in
which the mold geometry is more complex and requires
a gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity

Two Categories of Casting

Process
1.

Expendable mold processes uses an

expendable mold which must be
destroyed to remove casting
Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar
materials, plus binders

2.

Permanent mold processes uses a

permanent mold which can be used many
times to produce many castings
Made of metal ,graphite

Forming the Mold Cavity

Mold

cavity is formed by packing sand

around a pattern, which has the shape of the
part
When the pattern is removed, the remaining
cavity has desired shape of cast part
The pattern is usually oversized to allow for
shrinkage of metal as it solidifies and cools
Sand for the mold is moist and contains a
binder to maintain shape

Melting

and Pouring

Several types of furnaces are available for

melting metals and their selection depends on the
type of metal, the maximum temperature required
and the rate and the mode of molten metal
delivery.
Before pouring provisions are made for the
escape of dissolved gases. The other important
factors are the pouring temperature and the
pouring rate.

Cleaning and Finishing

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

Casting is taken out of the mould by shaking and the

Moulding sand is recycled often with suitable additions.
The remaining sand, some of which may be embedded in
the casting, is removed by means of Shot blasting.
The excess material in the form of sprue, runners, gates
etc., along with the flashes formed due to flow of molten
metal into the gaps is broken manuaaly in case of brittle
casting or removed by sawing and grinding in case of
ductile grinding.
The entire casting is then cleaned by either shot blasting or
chemical pickling.
Sometimes castings are heat treated to achieve better
mechanical properties.

Different Casting Processes

Process

Advantages

Disadvantages

Examples

Sand

many metals, sizes, shapes, cheap

poor finish & tolerance

engine blocks,
cylinder heads

Shell mold

better accuracy, finish, higher

production rate

limited part size

connecting rods, gear

housings

Expendable
pattern

Wide range of metals, sizes,

shapes

patterns have low

strength

cylinder heads, brake

components

Plaster mold

complex shapes, good surface

finish

non-ferrous metals, low

production rate

prototypes of
mechanical parts

Ceramic mold

complex shapes, high accuracy,

good finish

small sizes

impellers, injection
mold tooling

Investment

complex shapes, excellent finish

small parts, expensive

jewellery

Permanent
mold

good finish, low porosity, high

production rate

Costly mold, simpler

shapes only

gears, gear housings

Die

Excellent dimensional accuracy,

high production rate

costly dies, small parts,

non-ferrous metals

gears, camera bodies,

car wheels

Centrifugal

Large cylindrical parts, good

quality

Expensive, few shapes

pipes, boilers,
flywheels

Steel castings-Molding
Green

Sand molding
Resin sand molding
(Two part ,three part ,Air set etc)
Investment casting
Shell molding
Ceramic molding

Sand Casting

cope: top half

drag: bottom
half
core: for
internal
cavities
pattern:
positive
funnel
sprue
runners
gate
cavity
{risers,
vents}

Sand Casting

(Expandable-mould,
Permanent-pattern Casting)

Casting with expendable

mould: Investment Casting

Advantages and Limitations

Parts

of greater complexity and intricacy can

be cast
Close dimensional control 0.075mm
Good surface finish
The lost wax can be reused
Additional machining is not required in normal
course
Preferred for casting weight less than 5 kg,
maximum dimension less than 300 mm,
Thickness is usually restricted to 15mm
Al, Cu, Ni, Carbon and alloy steels, tool steels
etc. are the common materials

Permanent mould casting: Die

casting
Graphite+oil

In

Die casting the molten metal is forced to flow

into a permanent metallic mold under moderate to
high pressures, and held under pressure during
solidification
This high pressure forces the metal into intricate
details, produces smooth surface and excellent
dimensional accuracy
High pressure causes turbulence and air
entrapment. In order to minimize this larger
ingates are used and in the beginning pressure is
kept low and is increased gradually

Cycle in Hot Chamber Casting

Cycle in Cold Chamber

Casting

Centrifugal Casting

A permanent mold made of metal or ceramic is rotated at high

speed (300 to 3000 rpm). The molten metal is then poured into
the mold cavity and due to centrifugal action the molten metal
conform to the cavity provided in the mould.
Castings are known for their higher densities in the outer most
regions.
The process gives good surface finish
Applications: pipes, bushings, gears, flywheels etc.

Shell Molding

Schematic of the dump-box version of shell molding. a) A heated pattern is

placed over a dump box containing granules of resin-coated sand. b) The box is
inverted, and the heat forms a partially cured shell around the pattern. c) The box
is righted, the top is removed, and the pattern and partially cured sand is placed
in an oven to further cure the shell. d) The shell is stripped from the pattern. e)
Matched shells are then joined and supported in a flask ready for pouring.

Steel casting-Types
Plain

C steel
Low alloy steel
Cr-Mo, Ni-Mo ,Cr-Ni-Mo ,Ni-Cr-Mo
steels
High alloy steel
SS 304,316 ,Duplex, Martensitic
grades
Heat resistant grades

ASTM

Steel casting
-Specification

A 216 ,ASTM A 217 C

steels
ASTM A 351, ASTM A 352
S.Steels
ASTM A 487- Alloy steel
ASTM A 787
ASTM A 800
ASTM A 801

Steel-Specification
WCB

Weldable carbon steel

LCC Low temp applications
WC6 ,WC 9,C1,C2,C5,C12,C12A
CF8M ,CF3M Corrosion/ACI
/Carbon/SE
ACI codes
HH,HK

Specification

Mechanical properties of
GP91 cast steel

Applications
Steam turbines
Turbine bodies
Cylinders
T-Pipes
Valve Chambers
HRSG
Materials for Headers

for USC Power Plants

X20CrMoV11-1
X10CrMoVNb9-1(P91)
X11CrMoWVNb9-1-1 (P911/E911)
X10CrWMoVNb9-2 (P92)
Alloy 617

and Piping

Molding Issues
Sand

testing AFS No, Permeability, Green

and dry strength, Hardness, Gel formation
time, Resin chemistry ,Viscosity,AFS
clay,moisture
Core testing
Sleeves (size,visual,LoI etc)
Exothermic
materials(dryness,appearance)
Chills (size, damage)
Mold coats- proper drying /curing
Sand additives Iron oxide/others

Molding Issues
Placing

of core,sleeves
Proper closing
Correct size of chills
Correct composition of Internal
chills
Proper clamping
Top weights
Parting line check
Lab sample and Test bar mold

Melting Furnaces
EAF
EIF
Refining

vessels

Induction Furnace
A current

is passed through a water

cooled coil near or around the charge
Eddy currents are produced in the charge
material in response to the coil current
Heat is generated through ohmic heating
in the material

Induction Furnace

Electric Arc Furnace

A current

is passed from separate

electrodes creating arcs of ionized gas
Heat is transferred from the arc into the
charge material
Can be either DC or AC

Electric Arc Furnace

Pouring Vessel

The quality of casting depends on the method of melting. The

melting technique should provide molten metal at required
temperature, but should also provide the material of good quality
and in the required quantity.

Pouring vessels

Melting Raw materials

Foundry

returns
M.S. Scrap/S.S. scrap
Borings
HSIB
Fe alloys
Flux
Slag remover
Deoxidants

Melting issues
Charge

composition
Furnace lining
Melting time
Deoxidation
Furnace and ladle deoxidation
Pouring temperature
Cleanliness

Melting issues
Raw

material- scrap chemistry ,visual

inspection of scarp
Returns- percentage, shot blasted
Fe alloys chemistry
Furnace lining- visual after each
heat,spout and other repair
Sintering heat
Deoxidants-Drying/preheat

Melting-contd
Slag

coagulents- Dry /powdery

Pouring -1600-1630C
Before pouring only superheat the metal
Thermocouple -suitable one be used
Temperature check two times
House keeping-ensure
Ramming mass Acidic /basic/storage

Metal Treatment
Ladle

Injection treatment

LRF
Desulfurisation
Dephosporisation
Graded

scrap
Proper Cr addition
Vaccum degassing

Ladle -Issues
Ladle

lining Ramming mass

Proper lining
Drying for 12 hrs minimum-New
Before pouring- two hrs
Check-handle ,greasing, splashes at tip
Spillage on the sides
Ladle covering after pouring from furnace

Pouring-Issues
Ladle

deoxidation
Clean spout
No oxygen lancing of ladle
Pouring without turbulence
Temperature drop
Correct pouring plan-Load cell
Sprinkling of Exothermic powder
Heat Number Tag

Fettling Issues-Inspection
Visual

Inspection
Removal of Defective castings
Off composition melts
Shot blasting
Shot blasting m/c- maintenance
Heat no punching
House keeping

Fettling-Issues-cutting
Gas

cutting- C steel
Arc cutting- S.S
Abrasive wheel cut
Water Jet cutting
undercut on casting
Proper color coding of risers and gates
Placing in bins
House Keeping

Fettling Issues-Heat
Treatment
H.T. furnace

refractory
Correct batch size
Checking on Burners
Calibration of Thermocouples
Water tank circulation
Fan circulation
Temperature, soak time ,Atmosphere

Fettling Issues-Heat
Treatment
Homogenize

annealing for thick walled

castings
Q/T , Normalizing and tempering +SR
HT cracks- Forced air cooling
Intermediate SR for crack prone alloys
Abrasive wheel cutting/Water jet

Fettling-Casting repair
Weld

repair- correct welding rod

Welding rod-baking
Welding procedures-WPS/PQR
Trained /qualified welders
Proper fill up
Grinding
Inspection

Fettling-NDT
Radiography

for pressure parts

UT for thick castings
DPT for machined surfaces/SS
MPT for ferrous parts
Removal of defective parts
Repair of identified parts
Rejection of irrepairable

Design-Issues
Correct

methoding
Development of castings
Issues in development- clearly
Brain storming
Remedial measures
Economical design
High yield

Casting Defects
Defects

may occur due to one or

more of the following reasons:
Faulty design of casting pattern,
gating system and riser
Faulty use of raw materials
Improper quality checks
Incorrect
Melting
and
molding
practice and HT
Cutting

Classification of casting defects

Surface
Defect
Blow
Scar
Blister
Drop
Scab
Penetration
Buckle

Casting defects
Internal Defect
Blow holes
Porosity
Pin holes
Inclusions
Dross

Visible defects
Wash
Rat tail
Swell
Misrun
Cold shut
Hot tear
Shrinkage/Shift

Internal Defects

The internal defects found in the castings are mainly due

to trapped gases and dirty metal. Gases get trapped due
to hard ramming or improper venting. These defects also
occur when excessive moisture or excessive gas forming
materials are used for mould making.
Blow holes are large spherical shaped gas bubbles, while
porosity indicates a large number of uniformly
distributed tiny holes. Pin holes are tiny blow holes
appearing just below the casting surface.
Inclusions are the non-metallic particles in the metal
matrix, Lighter impurities appearing the casting surface
are dross.

Visible Defects

Casting Design:
guidelines

(a) avoid sharp corners

(b) use fillets to blend section changes smoothly
(c1) avoid rapid changes in cross-section areas

Use of chills

Casting Design:
guidelines

(c1) avoid rapid changes in cross-section areas

(c2) if unavoidable, design mold to ensure
- easy metal flow
- uniform, rapid cooling (use chills, fluid-cooled tubes)

Use of chaplets to avoid shifting of cores

Possible chaplet design

and casting with core

Casting Design:
guidelines

(d) avoid large, flat areas

- warpage due to residual stresses (why?)

Casting Design: guidelines

(e) provide drafts and tapers

- easy removal, avoid damage
- along what direction should we taper ?

Casting Design: guidelines

(f) account for shrinkage

- geometry
- shrinkage cavities

Casting Design:
guidelines

(g) proper design of parting line

- flattest parting line is best

of

GP91 cast steel after the heat treatment: a, b)

austenitizing 1040C and tempering 730C; c, d) austenitizing 1100C
and tempering 730C; a, c) OM; b, d) TEM,
Microstructure

Forging of Cr-Mo steels

Introduction
A metal

is shaped by compressive forces

Oldest metal working process 4000BC
Can be performed with a hammer and
anvil
Typical forged products:

Bolts
Rivets
Connecting rods
Gears

Forging types & Procedure

Hot

billets
Open Die forging
Closed die forging
Trimming
HT
Inspection

Grain Structure
Parts

have good strength

High toughness
Forgings require additional heat treating

Fig : A part made by three different procedures, showing grain flow (a) casting (b) machining (c) forging

Open-Die Forging
Is

the simplest forging process

Sizes can very from very small parts to very large parts

Open-Die Forging
Upsetting or flat-die forging

a solid workpiece is
placed between flat dies and is compressed

Barreling

caused by frictional forces at the die-workpiece

interfaces
Can be minimized if a lubricant is used
Thermal effects caused by barreling can be minimized
by using heated dies

Impression-Die & Closed-Die Forging

The

workpiece acquires the shape of the die cavities while

being forged between the two shaped dies

Impression-Die & Closed-Die Forging

The

blank to be forged is prepared by:

Cutting from a bar stock

Preformed blank
Casting
Preformed blank from prior forging

Impression-Die & Closed-Die Forging

Fullering

& edging are used to distribute the

material
Fullering material is distributed away from an area
Edging material is gathered into an area
Blocking

rough shaping of the part

Impression

dies give the part its final shape

Precision Forging

Used

for economic reasons

The part formed is close to the final dimensions
Less machining is needed
Higher capacity equipment is needed
Aluminum and Magnesium alloys work well in the process

Formability
Selection

of forging temperatures for

carbon and alloy steels is based on
carbon content, alloy composition
The temperature range for optimum
plasticity, and the amount of reduction
required to forge the work piece.
carbon content has the most influence
on upper-limit forging temperatures.
In
general, forging temperatures
decrease with increasing carbon and
alloy content

Advantages of forging
There

is an
improvement in
properties take place because
forging:
Breaks up segregation, heals
porosity, and aids homogenization
Produces a fibrous grain structure
that
enhances
mechanical
properties parallel to the grain flow
Reduces as-cast grain size

Thank You